Weaknesses and Errors

What do baroreceptors monitor and how do they respond to changes?

They detect changes in blood pressure and signal the brain to adjust heart rate and vessel diameter accordingly.

What process increases antibody affinity during B cell maturation in lymph nodes?

Somatic hypermutation — it mutates variable regions to increase affinity and diversity.

What are the products of the oxidative phase of the pentose phosphate pathway?

NADPH, ribulose-5-phosphate, and CO₂.

What does the Cori cycle do?

Converts lactate from muscles to glucose in the liver.

What enzyme activates and deactivates the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex?

Pyruvate dehydrogenase phosphatase. and Pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase

Which metabolic process occurs in the cytosol?

Glycolysis

Which metabolic process occurs in both mitochondria and cytosol?

Gluconeogenesis.

What is the key difference between SN1 and SN2 mechanisms in terms of stereochemistry?

SN2 causes inversion of configuration; SN1 can lead to racemization.

What does "percent ionization" mean for a weak acid?

It refers to the fraction of acid molecules that dissociate in solution.

What kind of substituent makes a weak acid stronger?

An electron-withdrawing group like chlorine increases acidity by stabilizing the conjugate base.

What does beta-minus decay do to atomic number?

Increases it by 1: a neutron becomes a proton, releasing an electron and antineutrino.

How do capillaries affect blood flow velocity?

Velocity decreases in capillaries due to increased total cross-sectional area.

What type of orbital hybridization is seen in octahedral geometry?

d²sp³ (not sp³, which is for tetrahedral).

What feature within an intron can result in exon skipping if deleted?

A splice acceptor site — necessary for correct exon joining during mRNA processing.

What is the role of Na⁺/K⁺ ATPase during an action potential?

It restores resting membrane potential after the AP, by pumping 3 Na⁺ out and 2 K⁺ in using ATP. It does not initiate or propagate the AP.

How does insulin promote glucose uptake in liver cells even without insulin-dependent GLUTs?

Insulin activates glycolysis, lowering intracellular glucose → this concentration gradient drives passive glucose uptake

What happens to muscle with prolonged glucocorticoid exposure?

Increased protein catabolism → leads to muscle weakness, not hypertrophy.

When should a molecule be assumed to enter by passive diffusion?

If it's nonpolar or mostly hydrophobic and uncharged, even with a few polar groups → it likely crosses via passive diffusion.

What drives initial filtration in the kidney glomerulus?

Pressure difference across the glomerular capillary and Bowman's capsule. Countercurrent exchange happens in Loop of Henle, not glomerulus.

Where does cleavage and modification of secreted proteins like insulin occur?

In the endomembrane system (ER and Golgi), not cytoplasm.

Thin Lens Equation

1/o+1/l=1/f

Focal Strength

S= 1/f

Magnification

M=-i/o

Index of Refraction

n=c/v

Intensity and Power of Electromagnetic Radiation

I=P/A,P=E/t E = nhf

Photon-Intensity Shortvut

Intensity proportional to number of photons x frequency

Standard Atmospheic Pressure

100 atm = 760 mmHg = 101.3 kPa

Circulatory Flow Rate

Q = A x v

What is dual coding theory in memory?

Items that are imageable are encoded both visually and verbally, making them easier to retrieve.

What is spreading activation in memory?

Activation of one concept in memory triggers recall of related concepts, even if they weren’t presented.

At what age do children master conservation in Piaget’s theory?

Around 7 years old, when they enter the concrete operational stage (7–11 years).

What is interoceptive awareness and what brain area is it linked to?

Awareness of internal bodily states (e.g., heartbeat, BP); linked to the autonomic nervous system (hypothalamus)

What brainstem structure is involved in arousal and attention?

The reticular formation, part of the brainstem.

Does appraisal refer to emotional or cognitive processes?

Cognitive. Appraisal theory focuses on evaluation (not feelings) in emotional response.

Why are experimental studies often unfeasible for psychological disorders like PD?

Because you can't ethically assign people to experience disordered states.

How do vibrations depolarize auditory hair cells?

Mechanical vibration opens mechanically-gated ion channels, generating a depolarizing current.

What is dishabituation and how is it demonstrated?

Recovery of a response to a new stimulus after habituation to a previous one (e.g., lemon → lime).

What does increased electrical conductivity of skin measure?

Sympathetic arousal.

What is ethnographic research?

Immersive observation-based research focused on culture and social practices.

What’s the difference between reliability and validity?

Reliability = consistent results; Validity = accurately measuring what it’s supposed to.

What is social facilitation?

Improved performance on simple tasks in the presence of others. Needs audience + task.

What does the cerebellum do in synchronous behavior?

Coordinates motor tasks like finger tapping in rhythmic synchronization.

What is Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)?

A universal stress response that occurs regardless of the stressor type.

What brain lobe is involved in sensory processing, not sympathetic arousal?

The parietal lobe. Sympathetic arousal is autonomic, not cortical.

What is the “Magical Number 7 ± 2”?

It refers to the capacity of short-term memory: 5–9 item

What is a discriminative stimulus in operant conditioning?

A stimulus that signals the availability of reinforcement or punishment, influencing whether a behavior is performed.

What is a signaling stimulus in classical conditioning?

A neutral stimulus that has the potential to become a conditioned stimulus through association.

What nervous system division is responsible for interoceptive awareness (e.g., heartbeat, BP)?

The autonomic nervous system, specifically the sympathetic and parasympathetic branches.

What physiological measure reflects sympathetic nervous system arousal?

Increased skin conductivity (also called galvanic skin response).

In what conditions does social facilitation occur?

Presence of others must be observed and the task must be well-learned or simple for performance to improve.

What’s the difference between a peer group and a reference group?

A peer group is made of individuals of similar age/status; a reference group provides standards for self-evaluation or behavior compariso

What is the hormone cascade in the HPA axis and what provides negative feedback?

Hypothalamus: CRH

Pituitary: ACTH

Adrenal cortex: Cortisol

Cortisol inhibits both CRH and ACTH via negative feedback.

Which reagents can oxidize aldehydes to carboxylic acids?

KMnO₄, Cr₂O₇²⁻ and CrO₃. Alcohols and SOCl₂ cannot perform this oxidation.

What does KMnO₄ do to aldehydes?

It oxidizes aldehydes to carboxylic acids.

What are the IR peaks for aldehydes and alcohols?

Aldehyde: ~1670 cm⁻¹ (C=O); Alcohol: broad ~3200–3600 cm⁻¹ (O–H)

Power formula for circuits when V and R are known?

P=V²/R

What role does succinate-ubiquinone reductase play in the ETC, and what happens when it's inhibited?

It’s part of Complex II, which passes electrons from FADH₂ to ubiquinone. It does not pump protons, so it doesn't affect pH. Inhibition blocks this electron flow.

Which reducing agent converts aldehydes to primary alcohols without affecting alkenes?

LiAlH₄ (strong reducing agent); avoid H₂ with Pd because it reduces alkenes too.

Which nucleotides are purines?

A and G

How does increasing an incline’s angle affect normal force and friction?

As the incline angle increases, cosθ decreases, reducing the normal force and therefore decreasing friction.

What is effective nuclear charge, and how does it change across the periodic table?

It's the net positive charge experienced by valence electrons. It increases across a period due to increasing protons and incomplete shielding.

Why might a single unsaturated compound produce multiple peaks with the same m/z in a mass spectrum?

Structural isomers like cis-trans (geometric) isomers can generate different fragmentation patterns, producing multiple peaks with the same mass-to-charge ratio (m/z).

What’s a mediating variable?

Explains the causal link between independent and dependent variables

What’s the difference between incidence and prevalence?

Incidence: new cases, Prevalence: total existing cases

What is a cohort study?

Follows a group of healthy participants over time to assess risk factors for disease.

What’s inductive reasoning?

From specific examples to general conclusions

Which amino acids commonly act as nucleophiles in enzymatic active sites?

Serine (–OH), Cysteine (–SH), Lysine (–NH₂), and Histidine are common nucleophiles. Tyrosine (–OH) and sometimes Aspartate/Glutamate (–COO⁻) may also participate due to lone pairs.

How is isoelectric point (pI) related to protein charge?

A low pI means a protein is negatively charged at physiological pH; a high pI means it is positively charged.

What does acetyl-CoA carboxylase produce, and what does that product inhibit?

It produces malonyl-CoA, which inhibits Carnitine Palmitoyltransferase I which Regulates the transport of long-chain fatty acids into the mitochondria for breakdown and reduces fatty acid oxidation.

What is the structure of the ribose in a nucleotide?

It is a pentofuranose, not a pentopyranose.

Why does low oxidative phosphorylation not prime cells for apoptosis?

Because it leads to ATP depletion and ion pump failure, which causes necrosis, not apoptosis.

How do disulfide bonds affect protein migration in a non-reducing SDS-PAGE gel?

Proteins with intact disulfide bonds remain linked and migrate as larger dimers; without disulfide bonds (e.g., in mutants), proteins migrate as smaller monomers.

How to find the electric field strength between two charged plates?

E = V/d

What are the units of electric field strength?

Measured in Newtons per Coulomb (N/C) or Volts per meter (V/m).

What is the formula for electric field strength (point charge)?

E = k * |Q| / r²

How does electric field strength relate to protein acceleration in electrophoresis?

Acceleration a = qV/md; higher voltage or lower distance increases acceleration.

What is the equation for a capacitor's charge?

Q = C × V (Charge = Capacitance × Voltage).

What stays constant in a series circuit?

Current.

What is the difference between acyl, benzyl, and isobutyl groups?

Acyl: C=O; Benzyl: phenyl–CH₂; Isobutyl: 3C with terminal CH₃ branch.

What reaction forms a secondary alcohol using a Grignard reagent?

Add a Grignard reagent (R–MgBr) to an aldehyde (R′–CHO), then perform an acid workup. Forms a secondary alcohol: R′–CH(OH)–R.

What is the wavelength range of visible light?

400–750 nm.

How does the body compensate for significant dehydration?

Increased sympathetic activity, decreased parasympathetic activity, decreased urine output, and increased total peripheral resistance.

What is the rate-limiting enzyme in gluconeogenesis?

Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK).

What are the anode and cathode charges in galvanic vs electrolytic cells?

Galvanic: anode (–), cathode (+); Electrolytic: anode (+), cathode (–)

What is the rate-limiting step of fatty acid beta-oxidation?

Translocation of acylcarnitine into the mitochondrial matrix.

What type of mutation replaces one amino acid with another and which introduces a premature stop codon?

Missense and Nonsense

What distinguishes adenine structurally?

Double ringed and Amino group at C6, no Carbonyl groups

What distinguishes guanine structurally?

Double ringed and Carbonyl at C6 and amino group at C2.

What distinguishes cytosine structurally?

Single ringed and only one carbonyl group and an Amino group at C4.

What distinguishes uracil structurally?

Single ringed, two carbonyl groups looks exactly like thymine except no methyl group.

What distinguishes thymine structurally?

Single ringed, two carbonyl groups looks exactly like uracil except with a methyl group.

What happens to the temperature of a substance at its boiling point when heat is added?

The temperature stays the same; the heat is used for the phase change (liquid → gas), not for increasing temperature.

What is the formula for buoyant force?

FB = ρfluid × Vsubmerged × g

What determines the fraction of an object submerged in a fluid?

The ratio of object density to fluid density (ρobject / ρfluid)

When does light bend toward the normal in Snell’s Law?

When entering a medium with a higher refractive index (n2 > n1)

What happens to the NADH/NAD⁺ ratio in the FED state?

NADH increases and the NADH/NAD⁺ ratio increases. Even though oxidative phosphorylation regenerates NAD⁺, in the FED state, the NADH/NAD⁺ ratio still increases due to the overwhelming production of NADH.

What are the 4 stages of Piaget's cognitive development theory?

Sensorimotor (0–2), Preoperational (2–7), Concrete operational (7–11), Formal operational (12+).

What are Erikson’s psychosocial stages from birth to age 18?

Trust vs. Mistrust, Autonomy vs. Shame, Initiative vs. Guilt, Industry vs. Inferiority, Identity vs. Role Confusion.

What are the two primary physiological factors that determine blood pressure?

Cardiac Output (CO) and Total Peripheral Resistance (TPR)