Studied by 0 peoplecognitive development
the development of thinking, problem solving, and memory
Culture
Beliefs, customs, and traditions of a specific group of people.
developmental psychopathology
field of psychology that focuses on determining what is abnormal at any point in the developmental process by comparing and contrasting it with normal and expected changes that occur
Equifinality
one symptom can have many causes
Multifinality
various outcomes may stem from similar beginnings
Incremental theories
theories in which development is a result of continuous quantitative changes
Intersectionality
the interconnected nature of social categorizations such as race, class, and gender as they apply to a given individual or group, regarded as creating overlapping and interdependent systems of discrimination or disadvantage.
Nature vs. Nurture
Do genes (nature) or environmental factors (nurture) contribute more to a person's being?
niche-picking
tendency to actively choose environments that complement our heredity
parental ethnotheories
parental cultural belief systems
peer review
a review by people with similar professional qualification
perceptual bias
the tendency to see and understand something based on the way you expected it to be
Physical Development
development involving the body's physical makeup, including the brain, nervous system, muscles, and senses, and the need for food, drink, and sleep
positive youth development
an approach to finding ways to help all young people reach their full potential
Qualitative changes
changes in the overall nature of what you are examining
quantitative changes
Gradual, incremental change, as in the growth of a pine tree's girth.
social policy
a national government's course of action designed to promote the welfare of its citizens
social-emotional development
Type of development involving a person's disposition, interaction with people and social groups, and emotions
socialization
the process by which individuals internalize the values, beliefs, and norms of a given society and learn to function as members of that society
socioeconomic status (SES)
A division of population based on occupation, income, and education.
stage theories
approaches that propose that development involves a series of discontinuous, age-related phases
Accommodation vs. Assimilation
using one's existing schema to interpret info vs. adapting one's schema to incorporate new info.
anal stage
Freud's pychosexual period during which a child learns to control his bodily excretions
applies behavior analysis
application of reinforcement principles to teach skills and change behavior to shape social and language skills
Behaviorism
the science of behavior that focuses on observable behavior only
Chronosystem
in the bioecological model, historical changes that influence the other systems
classical conditioning
a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events
connectionist network
-based on neural networks but are not necessarily identical to them
Constructivism
an extension of symbolic interaction theory which proposes that reality is what humans cognitively construct it to be
developmental cognitive neuroscience
explores links between development, cognitive processes, and the brain
developmental theory
A group of ideas, assumptions, and generalizations that interpret and illuminate the thousands of observations that have been made about human growth. A developmental theory provides a framework for explaining the patterns and problems of development.
dynamic assessment
a testing procedure that uses a test-intervene-test procedure to assess the examinee's potential to change
dynamic systems theory
the view that development is a self-organizing process, in which new forms of behavior emerge through consistent interactions between a biological being and cultural and environmental contexts
Ecological Systems Theory
views the person as developing within a complex system of relationships affected by multiple levels of the surrounding environment
ego
the largely conscious, "executive" part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality. The ego operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain.
Id
a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. The id operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification.
Superego
the part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations
embodied cognition
the influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive preferences and judgements
Equilibration
A mechanism that Piaget proposed to explain how children shift from one stage of thought to the next.
Ethology
The scientific study of how animals behave, particularly in natural environments.
Exosystem
social settings that a person may not experience firsthand but that still influence development
Extinction (operant conditioning)
decreases in the frequency of a behavior when the behavior is no longer reinforced
genital stage
Freud's last stage of personality development, from the onset of puberty through adulthood, during which the sexual conflicts of childhood resurface (at puberty) and are often resolved during adolescence).
Imprinting
the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life
latency stage
the fourth psychosexual stage, in which the primary focus is on the further development of intellectual, creative, interpersonal, and athletic skills
Macrosystem
consists of cultural values, laws, customs, and resources
Mesosystem
provides connections across microsystems
Microsystem
immediate environment
negative reinforcement
Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment.)
operant conditioning
a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher
oral stage
Freud's first stage of psychosexual development during which pleasure is centered in the mouth
phallic stage
Freud's third stage of development, when the penis becomes the focus of concern and pleasure
phobia
fear
positive reinforcement
Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.
psychoanalytic theory
A theory developed by Freud that attempts to explain personality, motivation, and mental disorders by focusing on unconscious determinants of behavior
psychosexual stages
the childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) during which, according to Freud, the id's pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones
psychosocial stages
In Erikson's theory, the developmental stages refer to eight major challenges that appear successively across the lifespan, which require an individual to rethink his or her goals and relationships with others.
punishment
an event that decreases the behavior that it follows
Reinforcement
in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows
Scaffolding
the support for learning and problem solving that encourages independence and growth
Schema
a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information
self-efficacy
one's sense of competence and effectiveness
shaping behavior
the process of guiding learning in graduated steps using reinforcement or lack of reinforcement
social cognitive theory
referring to the use of cognitive processes in relation to understanding the social world
stores model
the idea that information is processed through a series of mental locations (sensory to short-term to long-term memory "stores")
unconscious mind
level of the mind in which thoughts, feelings, memories, and other information are kept that are not easily or voluntarily brought into consciousness
zone of proximal development
phase of learning during which children can benefit from instruction
Applied Research
Research that has the primary goal of solving problems or improving the human condition
Archival records
Data collected at an earlier date that are used for research purposes
Attrition
The loss of participants over the course of a longitudinal study
Basic research
Research that has the primary goal of adding to our body of knowledge rather than having immediate direct application
Case study
An in-depth study of a single individual or small group of individuals that uses multiple methods of study
Checklist
A prepared list of behaviors, characteristics, or judgments observers use to assess a child’s development
Clinical interview
An interview strategy in which the interviewer can deviate from a standard set of questions to gather additional information
Cohort effect
Differences between groups in a crosssectional or sequential study that are attributable to the fact that the participants have had different life experiences
Control group
The group in an experiment that does not get the special treatment and provides a baseline against which the experimental group can be compared
Correlational research design
Research design that measures the strength and direction of the relationship between two or more variables that are not created by the experimenter
Cross-sectional design
A research design that uses multiple groups of participants who represent the age span of interest to the researcher
Dependent variable
The outcome of interest to the researcher that is measured at the end of an experiment
Effect size
A statistical measure of how large the difference is between groups being compared
Ethnography
A qualitative research technique in which a researcher lives with a group of people as a participant observer, taking part in the group’s everyday life while observing and interviewing people in the group
Experimental group
The group in an experiment that gets the special treatment that is of interest to the researcher
Experimental research design
A research design in which an experimental group is administered a treatment and the outcome is compared with a control group that does not receive the treatment
Generalize
To draw inferences from the findings of research on a specific sample about a larger group or population
Hypothesis
A prediction, often based on theoretical ideas or observations, that is tested by the scientific method
Independent variable
The variable in an experiment that the researcher manipulates
Interview
A data collection technique in which an interviewer poses questions to a respondent
Longitudinal design
A research design that follows one group of individuals and gathers data from them at several points in time
Meta-analysis
A statistical procedure that combines data from different studies to determine whether there is a consistent pattern of findings across studies
Microgenetic design
A research design that involves frequent observations of participants during a time of change or transition.
Natural or “quasi” experiment
Research in which the members of the groups are selected because they represent different “treatment” conditions
Negative correlation
A correlation in which increases in one variable are associated with decreases in another variable
Norm
The average or typical performance of an individual of a given age on a test
Observer bias
The tendency for an observer to notice and report events that the observer is expecting to see
Operationalize
To define a concept in a way that allows it to be measured
Population
A set that includes everyone in a category of individuals that researchers are interested in studying (for example, all toddlers, all teenagers with learning disabilities)
Positive correlation
A correlation in which increases in one variable are associated with increases in another variable
Questionnaire
A written form of a survey
Random assignment
Assigning participants to the experimental and control groups by chance so that the groups will not systematically differ from each other
Reliability
The ability of a measure to produce consistent results
Note
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