Psychology - Cognition, Part 1: Memory

Day 1 and Day 2 notes + vocab

Parallel processing

processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brains natural mode of information processing for many functions (ex: see a bus and see it’s color, shape, motion, etc. all at once)

Effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort (ex: memorizing a poem, solving math problems)

Automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental info (space, time, frequency) and of well-learned info (word meanings) (ex: reading, walking, talking)

spacing effect

tendency for distributed study/practice to yield better long-term retention than all at once practice (cramming) (ex: studying vocab for 10 mins a day for a week)

Testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving info rather than just re-reading (ex: using flashcards to self-test)

Shallow processing

encoding on a basic level, based on structure and appearance of words (ex: reading without understanding the context)

Deep processing

encoding semantically, based of meaning of words; tends to yield the best retention (ex: creating a concept map of ideas studied)

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

an increase in a cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; neural basis of learning and memory (ex: training your brain to remember math formulas)

Priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one’s perception, memory, or response (ex: buying a new car and then seeing that exact model multiple times on the road)

Misinformation effect

occurs when misleading info has distorted one’s memory of an event (ex: using “smashed” vs “bumped” to get different answers regarding a car crash)

Source amnesia

faulty memory for how, when, or where info was learned or imagined (a.k.a source misattribution) (ex: knowing a state’s capital but knowing how you learned it or from where)

convergent thinking

narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution (ex: picking the correct answer on a multiple-choice test)

divergent thinking

expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that diverges in different directions (ex: wondering how many ways a fork can be used)

belief perseverance

clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited (ex: someone not believing smoking causes cancer despite an abundance of info)

what 3 components make up cognition?

memory, language, thinking & processing

memory

thinking that has persisted over time

what are the three steps of memory process?

encoding (processing of info), storage (retaining encoding material over time), and retrieval (getting info out)

sensory memory

split second holding tank for all sensory info

iconic memory

split second perfect photo of a scene

echoic memory

an equally split second memory for rounds

what is the capacity of short-term memory?

7 items

what are mnemonic devices?

memory aids (ex: ROYGBIV)

how do you improve rehearsal?

find personal meaning

is long-term memory limited or unlimited?

unlimited

declarative memories

our conscious memories that we put effort into remembering

what are explicit memories?

episodic (specific events, stored sequentially) and semantic (general knowledge of the world, stored as facts)

nondeclarative memories

unintentional memories that we may not realize

implicit memories

procedural memory (walking, driving)

eidetic memory

a.k.a photographic memory

flashbulb memory

the importance of an event causes us to vividly encode the context surrounding the event (ex: 9/11)

mood congruent theory

we recall better if we are in the same mood as when we encoded the info

state-dependent memory

you retrieve info better when you are in the same conscious, emotional or physical state that you were in when you encoded it

constructed memories

reporting false details of a real event or recollection of an event that never occurred

recognition

process of using a cue to match a concept or fact with one already in memory (ex: multiple choice)

recall

retrieving a memory without an external cue (ex: free response)

when do we retrieve items best?

at the beginning (primacy effect) and at the end (recency effect)

encoding specificity

the value of a retrieval cue depends on how well it corresponds to the way the information was originally encoded

Transfer-Appropriate Processing

if the processing measure and retention measure are similar, retrieval is easier

tip of the tongue phenomenon

temporary inability to remember info despite remembering much of the context around it

what is memory related to?

alteration in synaptic transmission (durable changes during this may be the building blocks of memory)

what influences memory information?

hormones and protein synthesis

long-term potential

Long-lasting improvement in communication between two neurons that results from stimulating them simultaneously (receiving neuron becomes more sensitive to messages from the sending neuron)

where are long term memories stored?

the chemical synapses between neurons