Intro to Sociology Final Study Guide: Key Concepts, Theories, and Applications

What is the focus of sociology?

Patterns, relationships, groups, institutions, culture, and inequality.

What are the two key questions sociology seeks to answer?

What do people do? Why do people do what they do?

What are the three extra questions in sociology?

What are we anyway? What holds society together? Why is there inequality and what follows from it?

What are the two pillars of science in sociology?

Observation (empiricism) and logic (reasoning).

What is the core idea of the sociological imagination?

Linking personal troubles to public issues and analyzing how various forces shape private life.

Who introduced the concept of sociological imagination?

C. Wright Mills in 1959.

What is structural functional theory?

A theory that views society as interdependent parts, where each part serves functions that maintain society.

What should you identify in an exam answer about structural functionalism?

An institution, its function, and how that function supports stability.

What does symbolic interaction theory emphasize?

Meaning drives action and is built through interaction.

What is conflict theory focused on?

The competition between groups over scarce resources and power.

What is intersectionality?

The overlapping of multiple systems of discrimination that produce unique harms.

What did Durkheim study to prove social facts shape outcomes?

Suicide rates.

What are social facts?

External forces such as norms, laws, integration, regulation, and institutions.

What are the two key variables in Durkheim's study of suicide?

Social integration and social regulation.

What is egoistic suicide?

Suicide due to too little integration; weak social ties and isolation.

What is altruistic suicide?

Suicide due to too much integration; self-sacrifice for the group.

What is anomic suicide?

Suicide due to too little regulation; normlessness during rapid change.

What is fatalistic suicide?

Suicide due to too much regulation; oppressive constraint with no perceived exit.

What does Durkheim's research show about suicide rates?

Suicide rates rise when integration or regulation move to extremes rather than staying balanced.

What is deductive reasoning?

Starting with a theory and testing it with data.

What is inductive reasoning?

Starting with observations and building a theory.

What are the core ethical requirements in sociological research according to the Belmont Report?

Respect for persons, justice, beneficence, voluntary participation, no harm, informed consent, confidentiality, and honest reporting.

What is the definition of culture?

Shared ways of living and perspectives built through interaction.

What are the five elements of culture?

Beliefs, norms, values, symbols, and practices.

What is the difference between dominant culture, subculture, and counterculture?

Dominant culture is mainstream; subculture has distinct traits within it; counterculture opposes dominant values.

What does ethnocentrism mean?

The belief that one's own culture is superior to others.

What is cultural relativism?

Studying practices from within the culture's meaning system.

What is the difference between primary and secondary groups?

Primary groups are intimate and personal; secondary groups are formal and goal-oriented.

What is ascribed status?

A status assigned at birth or involuntarily.

What is achieved status?

A status earned or chosen.

What is a master status?

The most defining status in a context.

What is bureaucracy?

A formal organization designed to maximize efficiency.

What are the principles of McDonaldization?

Efficiency, calculability, predictability, control, and non-human technology.

What is the irrationality of rationality?

Rational systems can create irrational outcomes like burnout and waste.

What is power in sociological terms?

The capacity to shape what others think or do.

What is authority?

Power tied to an office or institution.

What are Weber's types of legitimate authority?

Traditional, charismatic, and legal-rational.

What is social deviance?

The violation of norms.

What is socialization?

The life-long process of learning norms, values, and roles.

What is the pluralist power model?

Power is distributed among many competing groups.

What is the elite power model?

Power is concentrated among a small group.

What is the single story concept?

A one-dimensional view that can lead to stereotypes and oppression.

What is the difference between equality and equity?

Equality means the same tools for everyone; equity means different tools for comparable outcomes.

What is the critique of capitalism mentioned?

Profit focus and efficiency pressure reinforce inequality.

What does the path of least resistance (PLR) refer to?

The expected behavior set by power and institutions, learned via socialization.

What is the role of stigma in society?

It defines meaning and drives consequences based on cultural perceptions.