Physics, Chemistry, and Biology Lecture Notes

A complete set of vocabulary flashcards derived from the physics, chemistry, and biology lecture notes, including scientific laws, formulas, and experimental methodology.

Speed Formula

$$\text{Speed} = \frac{\text{Distance}}{\text{Time}}$$

Distance Formula

$$\text{Distance} = \text{Speed} \times \text{Time}$$

Time Formula

$$\text{Time} = \frac{\text{Distance}}{\text{Speed}}$$

km/h to m/s Conversion

Divide by $3.6$

m/s to km/h Conversion

Multiply by $8.6$

Acceleration (a)

The change in speed over time; calculated as $\text{Final speed} - \frac{\text{Initial speed}}{\text{time}}$; formula provided is $a = \frac{v - u}{t}$

Newton's First Law

An object at rest will stay at rest or continue moving at a constant speed unless acted upon.

Newton's Second Law

The acceleration of an object depends on the net force acting on it and its mass ($F = ma$).

Newton's Third Law

For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.

Inertia

The tendency of an object to resist changes in motion.

Atomic Number

The number of protons and electrons in an atom.

Number of Neutrons Calculation

$$\text{Atomic weight} - \text{Atomic number}$$

Reactants

The substances that react together in a chemical reaction.

Products

The new substances that are formed during a chemical reaction.

Reactivity

How easily an atom loses or gains electrons.

Metal Reactivity Trend

Reactivity increases down a group ($\uparrow$) because electrons are further from the nucleus.

Non-metal Reactivity Trend

Reactivity decreases down a group because it is harder to gain electrons as the nucleus has a weaker attraction.

Cation

A positively charged ion formed when an atom loses electrons ($\text{Cats have pos paws}$).

Anion

A negatively charged ion formed when an atom gains electrons.

Octet Rule

The principle that atoms want to become stable by having a full valence shell.

Ionic Bonding

An electrostatic attraction between opposite charges where positive ions attract negative ions.

Ionic Compound Properties

High melting and boiling points; conducts electricity when dissolved in water ($\text{ions pull apart}$); does not conduct electricity as a solid.

Covalent Bonding

A bond formed when two non-metal atoms share valence electrons.

Covalent Compound Properties

Low boiling and melting points; poor electrical conductivity; often gases or liquids, occasionally solids (e.g., diamond).

Aerobic Respiration

A process using glucose and oxygen to produce carbon dioxide, water, and lots of energy.

Anaerobic Respiration

A process using only glucose to produce lactic acid and a small release of energy; creates an oxygen debt.

Combustion

An exothermic chemical reaction where fuel reacts with oxygen to release energy, usually as light and heat.

Photosynthesis

The process where plants use sunlight to convert water and carbon dioxide into oxygen and glucose ($\text{energy}$).

Fermentation

A chemical process, such as alcoholic fermentation in yeast, where cells break down sugar without oxygen to release energy.

Valid Experiment

An experiment that tests a stated hypothesis using constant variables and a control test where the independent variable remains unchanged.

Reliable Experiment

An experiment that achieves consistent results when it is repeated.

Accuracy

The degree to which an experiment depends on the measuring tools used; can be improved by using more precise tools.

Double Displacement Reaction

A reaction where two ionic solutions are mixed and ions swap partners; if one product is insoluble, a solid precipitate forms.

Precipitate

A solid product generated during a chemical reaction that settles out of solution, typically denoted as $(s)$ in equations.

Exothermic Reaction

A reaction that releases heat energy to the surroundings; the products have less chemical energy than the reactants.

Endothermic Reaction

A reaction that absorbs heat energy from the surroundings; the products have more chemical energy than the reactants.

Collision Theory Requirements

For a reaction to occur: 1. Particles must collide; 2. Collisions must have sufficient energy ($\text{Activation energy}$); 3. Particles must collide in the correct orientation.

Concentration effect on Reaction Rate

Higher concentration means more particles in the same volume, leading to more collisions and a faster rate of reaction.