Social divisions: nobles, landowners and the position of the peasantry

How did Russia's society begin to change with the spread of industrialization?

Russia's traditional land-based society started shifting towards one focused on money, capital, and wages, although it remained strongly divided until 1895.

What new social classes began to emerge during this period?

An emergent new middle class and urban working class began to appear, situated between the landowning elites and the mass of peasants.

Who made up the landed elite, and how did their position change after the Emancipation?

The landed elite was a small but diverse group, mostly of noble status. Their personal landholdings declined post-Emancipation, leading many to sell land or shift to professional activities, yet they retained much of their previous wealth and status.

In what new areas did the nobility engage by the 1880s?

By the 1880s, nobles were involved in professions such as university professors, business owners, commerce, transport, industry, and state service, including roles in the zemstva and provincial governorships.

What factors contributed to the growth of Russia's middle class?

Urban and industrial expansion, increased educational opportunities, government contracts, and state loans facilitated the growth of bankers, doctors, teachers, administrators, and entrepreneurs.

How large was the middle class according to the 1897 census?

The middle class numbered no more than half a million by the 1897 census.

How did the urban working class develop alongside industrial expansion?

Although the urban working class remained small (about 2% of the population), it grew as peasants moved temporarily to towns or permanently to cities, often for regular wages despite poor conditions.

What was a common pattern of migration for peasants during this period?

Many peasants moved temporarily to towns for work but returned to villages for peak agricultural times. Some permanently left the countryside to build railways or become urban workers.

What proportion of St Petersburg's inhabitants were peasants by birth in 1864?

By 1864, one in three of St Petersburg's inhabitants were peasants by birth, and this proportion continued to rise.

What were working conditions like in early factories, and what reforms were introduced?

Factory conditions were grim with little regard for workers' welfare. Reforms from 1882-90 aimed to regulate child labor, reduce working hours, minimize fines, and appoint inspectors, but had limited impact on workers' lives.