MOD 1 IO

What does the field of industrial-organizational (I-O) psychology study?

I-O psychology studies how people think, feel, and behave in the workplace, including topics like job performance, motivation, work attitudes, selection, training, and organizations.

What is the science-practitioner model?

I-O psychologists use scientific research and evidence while also applying that knowledge to real workplace problems.

What is evidence-based practice?

Using the best available scientific evidence, along with professional knowledge and the situation, to make workplace decisions.

What are five common ways people come to know something?

Authority, intuition, personal experience, logic/reasoning, and science.

How does science overcome the limitations of the other four ways of knowing?

Science uses systematic observation, testing, evidence, and replication instead of relying only on personal beliefs, experiences, or opinions.

What is the scientific method?

A systematic process used to answer questions by collecting and evaluating evidence.

What are the basic steps of the scientific method?

Ask a question → develop a hypothesis → collect data → analyze the data → draw conclusions → communicate results.

What is a theory?

A broad explanation that organizes and explains observations and research findings.

What is a research question?

A specific question that a researcher wants to answer through research.

What is a hypothesis?

A testable prediction about what will happen in a study.

How are a theory, research question, and hypothesis different?

a broad explanation; what you want to find out; a specific testable prediction.

What is a variable?

Anything that can vary or have different values.

What is an independent variable (IV)?

The variable that is changed or manipulated by the researcher.

What is another term for an independent variable?

Predictor variable.

What is a dependent variable (DV)?

The variable that is measured as the outcome.

What is another term for a dependent variable?

Criterion or outcome variable.

What is causality?

A cause-and-effect relationship where changes in one variable produce changes in another.

What three conditions must be met to establish causality?

Covariation, temporal precedence, and ruling out alternative explanations.

What is covariation?

The two variables are related and change together.

What is temporal precedence?

The cause happens before the effect.

What does ruling out alternative explanations mean?

There are no other explanations, such as a confounding variable, that could explain the relationship.

What is a correlational study?

A study that measures variables as they naturally occur and examines whether they are related.

Can correlational studies establish causality?

No. They can show relationships but cannot establish cause and effect by themselves.

What is an experimental study?

A study where the researcher manipulates an independent variable and measures its effect on a dependent variable.

Which study design provides the strongest evidence for causality?

A well-designed experiment because the researcher manipulates the IV and can control alternative explanations.

What is a psychological construct?

An abstract concept that we believe exists but cannot directly observe or easily measure, such as motivation or job satisfaction.

How are psychological constructs typically measured?

Through observable indicators such as questionnaires, ratings, tests, interviews, or behavioral measures.

What is validity?

The degree to which a measure actually measures what it is supposed to measure.

What are the three primary sources of validity evidence?

Content, evidence based on relationships with other variables, and evidence based on the internal structure of the measure.

What is reliability?

The consistency of a measurement.

What are the four main forms of reliability?

Test-retest, internal consistency, interrater, and alternate/parallel forms.

What is test-retest reliability?

Whether a measure produces consistent scores when the same people take it at different times.

What is internal consistency reliability?

Whether items on a measure consistently measure the same construct.

What is interrater reliability?

How consistently different raters evaluate the same person or behavior.

What is alternate/parallel forms reliability?

How consistently different versions of the same measure produce similar results.

What is a correlation coefficient?

A number that describes the direction and strength of the relationship between two variables.

What does the sign of a correlation tell you?

Positive means the variables move in the same direction; negative means they move in opposite directions.

What does the absolute value of a correlation tell you?

The strength of the relationship. The closer the value is to 1, the stronger the relationship.

What does r = 0 mean?

There is no linear relationship between the two variables.

What does r = +1 mean?

A perfect positive relationship.

What does r = -1 mean?

A perfect negative relationship.

What is an effect size?

A measure of how large or meaningful a difference or relationship is.

How is effect size different from statistical significance?

Effect size tells you how large the effect is; statistical significance tells you whether the result is unlikely to be due to chance under the statistical model.

How are small, medium, and large effect sizes typically distinguished?

Common guidelines describe small, medium, and large effects using numerical cutoffs, but the exact cutoff depends on the effect-size measure being used.

What is a p-value?

The probability of getting results at least this extreme if the null hypothesis were true.

What does a small p-value suggest?

The results provide stronger evidence against the null hypothesis.

How do different study designs compare in quality of evidence?

Experimental designs generally provide stronger evidence for causality than correlational or observational designs because they provide more control over alternative explanations.

What is a meta-analysis?

A statistical method that combines results from multiple studies to estimate the overall effect across the research.

How is a meta-analysis different from other research designs?

Instead of collecting new data from individual participants, it combines and analyzes results from existing studies.