Human Anatomy Ch. 2 Review

Fill in the blanks:

• ___ are the smallest ___ units in the body

  • Obtain nutrients

  • Make molecules needed to survive

  • Dispose of wastes

  • Maintain their shape

  • Replicate itself

cells, living

Fill in the blanks:

• Organelles

  • Subunits of cells with ___ ___

  • Most cells contain the same basic organelles

    • Not all cells have all organelles in the same abundance

specific functions

Fill in the blanks:

• Cells have three main components

  • ___ ___ —the outer boundary

  • ___ —contains most organelles

  • ___ —controls cellular activities

plasma membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus

Fill in the blanks:

• Structure of membrane

  • Fluid mosaic model (lipid bilayer)

  • Types of membrane proteins

    • ___ proteins—firmly imbedded in or attached to lipid bilayer

    • Short chains of ___ attach to integral proteins

      • Form the ___ (allows for cells to stick, unique to each person)

    • ___ proteins—attach to membrane surface (inside or outside)

      • Support plasma membrane from the cytoplasmic side

integral, carbohydrates, glycocalyx, peripheral

Fill in the blanks: The Plasma Membrane

• Functions—relate to location at the interface of cell’s exterior and interior

  • Provides barrier against substances outside cell

  • Some plasma membranes act as ___

  • Determines which substances enter or leave the cell

    • Membrane is ___ ___

receptors, selectively permeable

Fill in the blanks: Membrane Transport

• ___ ___ —tendency of molecules to move down their concentration gradient (high -> low)

• ___ —diffusion of water molecules across a membrane (follows solutes)

simple diffusion, osmosis

Reminder: Membrane Transport Mechanisms

Active Recall Exercise: Try to describe each type of mechanism by memory

Okay

Fill in the blanks: Membrane Transport Mechanisms

• ___ ___ —movement of molecules down their concentration gradient through an integral protein

• ___ ___ —integral proteins move molecules across the plasma membrane against their concentration gradient (requires help)

facilitated diffusion, active transport

Fill in the blanks: Endocytosis

• Endocytosis

  • Mechanism by which particles enter cells

    • Phagocytosis—“cell ___”

    • Pinocytosis—“cell ___”

eating, drinking

Fill in the blanks:

• Receptor-mediated endocytosis

  • Plasma proteins bind to certain molecules

    • Invaginates and forms a ___ ___

      • Pinches off to become a ___ ___

    • This is the method by which insulin, other hormones, enzymes, and low-density lipoproteins enter cells

coated pit, coated vesicle

This the process of?

Phagocytosis

This is the process of?

Pinocytosis

What is this process?

Receptor-mediated Endocytosis

Fill in the blanks:

• Exocytosis—a mechanism that moves substances out of the cell

  • Substance is enclosed in a ___

  • The ___ migrates to the plasma membrane

vesicle

Fill in the blanks:

• ___

  • Lies internal to plasma membrane

  • Consists of cytosol, organelles, and inclusions

• ___

  • Jellylike fluid in which other cellular elements are suspended (ie regulatory proteins)

  • Consists of water, ions, and enzymes

Cytoplasm, cytosol

Fill in the blanks: Cytoplasmic Organelles

• Ribosomes—constructed of ___ and ___ RNA; not surrounded by a membrane

  • Site of protein synthesis

    • Assembly of proteins is called ___

  • Are the “assembly line” of the manufacturing plant

proteins, ribosomal, translation

Fill in the blanks:

• Ribosomes

  • Free ribosomes function within the ___

  • Ribosomes attached to ER [Attached to the rough ER (ribosomes make it rough)]

    • Make proteins to ___ plasma membrane

    • Make proteins that are ___ from the cell

  • (General fate of ribosomes: plasma membrane, secreted, and the defective are destroyed)

cytosol, renew, exported

Fill in the blanks: Cytoplasmic Organelles

• Endoplasmic reticulum—system of membrane-walled ___ and ___ throughout cytoplasm

  • Rough E R—ribosomes stud the external surfaces

  • Smooth E R—consists of tubules in a branching network

    • No ribosomes are attached; therefore, no ___ ___

envelopes, tubes, protein synthesis

Fill in the blanks: Cytoplasmic Organelles

• Golgi apparatus—a stack of ___ to ___ disc-shaped cisterns

  • Sorts products of ___ ER and sends them to proper destination

  • Products of rough ER move through the Golgi from the ___ (___) to the ___ (___) side [ie gets tagged for shipping]

  • Is the “packaging and shipping” division of the manufacturing plant [think amazon]

3, 10, rough, convex (cis), concave (trans)

Re: The Sequence of Events from Protein Synthesis on the Rough ER to the Final Distribution of these Proteins

Okay

Fill in the blanks:

• Lysosomes—membrane-walled sacs containing ___ ___

  • Digest ___ substances

  • Are the cell’s “demolition crew”

digestive enzymes, unwanted

Fill in the blanks:

• Mitochondria—surrounded by ___-___ membrane

  • Generate most of the cell’s energy

  • “Power plant” of the cell

  • Release energy stored in chemical bonds and transfer energy to produce ATP [energy comes from last ___ of ATP]

  • Cells with high ___ requirements have more mitochondria—for example, muscle cells (and spermatozoa)

  • Most complex organelle

    • Contain some ___ inherited DNA

    • Believed to have arisen from ___

  • FYI:

    • Ribosomes and the mitochondrial DNA are within the inner membrane.

    • The electron transport chain also occurs in the inner membrane

double-walled, phosphate, energy, maternally, bacteria

Fill in the blanks: Peroxisomes

• Peroxisomes—membrane-walled sacs of ___ or ___ ___

  • Enzymes neutralize ___ ___ and break down ___

  • Break down long chains of ___ ___

  • Are numerous in the ___ and ___ [both can make ATP from new substances]

  • Are the “toxic waste removal system”

oxidase, catalase enzymes, free radicals, poisons, fatty acids, liver, kidneys

Fill in the blanks: Cytoplasmic Organelles

• Cytoskeleton—“cell skeleton”—an elaborate network of ___

  • Contains three types of rods:

    • Microfilaments—filaments of contractile protein ___

    • ___ filaments—protein fibers (rope-like)

    • ___ —cylindrical structures made of proteins (column-like)

rods, actin, Intermediate, Microtubules

What structure is shown?

Microfilaments

What structure is shown?

Intermediate filaments

What structure is shown?

Microtubules

Fill in the blanks:

• Centrosomes and centrioles

  • ___—a spherical structure in the cytoplasm

    • Composed of ___ ___ and centrioles

  • Centrioles—paired cylindrical bodies

    • Consists of ___ short microtubules (magic number + 1?)

    • Act in forming cilia, flagella, and the ___ ___

Centrosome, centrosome matrix, 27, miotic spindle

Fill in the blanks: Cytoplasmic Inclusions

• Temporary structures

  • Not present in all cell types

• May consist of pigments, crystals of protein, and food stores (also perhaps junk that hasn’t been processed by lysosomes yet)

• ___ ___ —found in liver cells and fat cells

• ___ —store sugar in the form of glycogen

Lipid droplets, Glycosomes

Fill in the blanks:

• The nucleus

  • Control center of the cell

  • D N A directs the cell’s activities

    • Provides instructions for protein synthesis

  • Nucleus is approximately ___ µm in diameter

  • Nuclear envelope— ___ ___ membranes separated by fluid-filled space

  • Nuclear pores penetrate the nuclear envelope

    • Pores allow ___ molecules to pass in and out of the nucleus

5, 2 parallel, large

Fill in the blanks:

• Nucleolus—“little nucleus”—in the ___ of the nucleus

  • Contains parts of several ___

  • Site of ___ ___ assembly

center, chromosomes, ribosome subunit

Fill in the blank: Chromatin and Chromosomes

• DNA double helix is composed of four subunits:

  • Thymine (T), adenine (A), cytosine (C), and guanine (G)

• DNA is packed with protein molecules

  • DNA plus the proteins form ___

• Each cluster of DNA and ___ histone proteins is a nucleosome

• Extended chromatin

  • Is the ___ region of DNA where DNA’s genetic code is copied onto mRNA in transcription

• Condensed chromatin

  • Tightly coiled nucleosomes

  • ___ form of chromatin

chromatin, 4, active, inactive

Fill in the blanks:

• Chromosomes—highest level of organization of ___ (has an X shape)

  • Each part of the chromosomal X is a ___

  • Contains a long molecule of DNA

    • A typical human cell contains ___ chromosomes total

      • A pair of ___ from each parent

chromatin, chromatid, 46, 23

Review of Chromatic and Chromosome Structure

Active recall exercise: Cover the captions and quiz yourself on each one

Okay

Fill in the blanks: The Cell Life Cycle

• The cell life cycle is the series of changes a cell undergoes

  • Interphase

    • G₁ phase—growth 1, or Gap 1, phase

      • The ___ part of interphase

      • Cell metabolically ___

        • Makes proteins and grows rapidly

      • ___ in length from hours to years (egg cell)

      • ___ begin to replicate near the end of G₁

first, active, variable, centrioles

Fill in the blanks: The Cell Life Cycle

• S (synthetic) phase—DNA replicates itself

  • Ensures that daughter cells receive ___ copies of the genetic material (___ extended)

• G₂ phase—growth 2, or Gap 2

  • ___ finish copying themselves

  • ___ needed for cell division are synthesized in G₂

• During all three phases (G1, S, & G2), the cell carries out its normal metabolic activities

identical, chromatin, centrioles, enzymes

Reminder: The Cell Cycle

Active Recall Exercise: Try to redraw the diagram from memory or simply recall the order

Okay

Fill in the blanks: The Cell Life Cycle

• Cell division

  • M (mitotic) phase—cells ___ during this stage

    • Follows interphase (G₁, S, and G₂)

• Cell division involves:

  • Mitosis—division of the ___ during cell division

    • ___ are distributed to the two daughter nuclei

  • Cytokinesis—separation of one cell into two

    • Occurs after the nucleus ___

divide, nucleus, chromosomes, divides

Fill in the blanks: The Stages of Mitosis

• Prophase—the first and ___ stage of mitosis

  • Early prophase—chromatin threads ___ into chromosomes

    • Chromosomes are made up of two threads called chromatids (sister chromatids)

    • Chromatids are held ___ by the centromere

    • Centriole pairs (forming the centromere) separate from one another

    • The ___ ___ forms

longest, condense, together, mitotic spindle

Fill in the blanks: The Stages of Mitosis

• Prophase

  • Late prophase—centrioles continue moving ___ from each other

    • Nuclear membrane ___

away, fragments

Review: Mitosis

Active Recall Exercise: Cover the captions and quiz yourself on them.

Okay

Fill in the blanks: The Stages of Mitosis

• Metaphase—the ___ stage of mitosis

  • Chromosomes cluster at the middle of the cell

    • ___ are aligned along the equator

• Anaphase—the third and ___ stage of mitosis

  • Centromeres of chromosomes ___

second, centromeres, shortest, split

Review: Mitosis

Active Recall Exercise: Cover the captions and quiz yourself.

Okay

Fill in the blanks: The Stages of Mitosis

• Telophase begins as chromosomal movement ___

  • Chromosomes at opposite poles of the cell ___

  • Resume threadlike extended-___ form

  • A new nuclear ___ forms

• Cytokinesis completes the division of the cell into ___ daughter cells

stops, uncoil, chromatin, envelope, two

Fill in the blanks: Developmental Aspects of Cells

• Specialized functions of cells relate to:

  • ___ of cell

  • Arrangement of ___

    • Different cells have different ratios of organelles. For example, cells that move more require more mitochondria (ie heart cells and spermatazoa)

shape, organelles

Fill in the blanks: Cellular Diversity

• Cells that connect body parts or cover organs

  • Fibroblast—makes and secretes ___ component of fibers

  • Epithelial cell—the shape allows ___ number of epithelial cells to pack together

  • Erythrocyte—concave shape provides surface area for ___ of the respiratory gases

    • Increase of surface area = more ___ efficiency

protein, maximum, uptake, functional

Fill in the blanks: Cellular Diversity

• Cells that move organs and body parts

  • Skeletal and ___ muscle cells

    • Elongated and filled with actin and ___

    • Shorten ___

    • FYI: Contracts quickly, but relaxes slowly, so (ie GI) pain lasts longer.

smooth, myosin, forcefully

Fill in the blanks: Cellular Diversity

• Cells that store nutrients

  • ___ ___—shape is produced by large fat droplet in its cytoplasm

    • Identifiable by presence of one nuclei per cell

• Cells that fight disease

  • ___—moves through tissue to reach infection sites

    • FYI: can squeeze through epithealial tissue and take up residence elsewhere

• Cells that gather information

  • ___—has long processes for receiving and transmitting messages

• Cells of reproduction

  • ___ (male)—possesses long tail for swimming to the egg for fertilization [and to burrow into egg]

fat cell, macrophage, neuron, sperm

Fill in the blanks: Aging

• Aging—a complex process caused by a variety of factors

  • Free ___ theory

    • Damage from by-products of cellular metabolism

    • Radicals build up and damage essential molecules of cells

  • ___ theory

    • A decrease in production of energy by mitochondria weakens and ages our cells

  • Genetic theory proposes that aging is programmed by genes

    • ___ —structures that limit the maximum number of times cells can divide

    • ___ —prevents telomeres from degrading

    • FYI: Determined by genes, those with more telomerase or telomeres that can divide more times can extend how many times telomeres can divide and can ultimately live longer.

radical, mitochondrial, telomeres, telomerase