Bus Ethics unit

What is the difference between Kahneman’s System 1 and System 2 thinking?

System 1 = fast, intuitive, automatic. System 2 = slow, deliberate, effortful, logical.

What is “moral architecture” (Fisman & Galinsky)?

Designing environments/structures that shape moral behavior. Example: transparency rules in financial systems.

What psychological findings are relevant to moral decision-making (Fisman & Galinsky; Kahneman)?

Limited self-awareness of influences; people underestimate situational effects on their choices.

Do people sometimes fail to attend to things they care about and thus act against their moral evaluations?

Yes (NPR, Fisman & Galinsky, Bazerman & Tenbrunsel, Kahneman).

Can the way situations are structured lead ordinary people to do morally wrong things?

Yes

Is moral psychology the scientific study of what makes the right thing right and the wrong thing wrong?

No — it studies how people actually think/act morally, not normative justification.

Is self-interest the only thing that ever motivates anyone?

No

Do humans never act from a desire to help others?

No — they sometimes do.

Do humans sometimes lose sight of their own moral principles?

Yes

What is the main function of moral theory?

To explain what makes right actions right and wrong actions wrong.

Do all moral theories agree that morality is just judging individual actions?

No

Can two people with the same moral theory still disagree about whether an action is right?

Yes

Do utilitarianism, deontology, and virtue ethics ever reach the same conclusions?

Yes, sometimes.

What makes an action right according to each theory?

Utilitarianism = best consequences. Deontology = duty/intention. Virtue ethics = what a virtuous person would do.

According to utilitarianism, how do we assess morality of an action?

By its consequences — does it maximize the good?

Does hedonistic utilitarianism say the good = presence of pleasure and absence of pain?

Yes (net pleasure).

For a judge, which factor matters most to a utilitarian?

Consequences (e.g., deterrence, impact on crime rates).

What are trade-offs in utilitarian reasoning?

Weighing good vs. bad consequences.

How does utilitarianism compare outcomes?

On a single scale of value.

Do utilitarians hold freedom is intrinsically valuable?

Not necessarily — value depends on contribution to the good.

What did Bentham say about rights/liberty?

They are unnecessary or mistaken; just maximize pleasure.

What do all utilitarians agree on?

We should maximize the good (whatever it is).

What does Mill argue?

Greatest good for the greatest number.

• Freedom, unless harming others.

• Distinction between higher and lower pleasures.

Where do Bentham and Mill agree?

Both support “the greatest good for the greatest number.”

What are Mill’s higher pleasures?

Intellectual and moral pleasures, judged by “competent judges.”

Do all utilitarians think ultimate good = pleasure?

No — only hedonistic utilitarians.

What does the claim “no single scale fits all values” challenge?

Utilitarianism (not all values are comparable).

What do utilitarians hold to be intrinsically valuable?

Depends on the variant — for hedonists, pleasure; for others, welfare or preference satisfaction.

Is utilitarianism mainly about developing freedom (per Sandel)?

No — it’s about maximizing good outcomes.

Does Bentham say maximizing pleasure protects rights?

No — he dismisses natural rights.

Are modern welfare debates deontological at root (per Sandel)?

Yes

Does utilitarianism base morality on character of the person?

No — on consequences.

Is cost-benefit analysis based on utilitarian reasoning?

Yes

Did Mill disagree with Bentham’s “rights are nonsense upon stilts”?

Yes — Mill valued liberty more.

How does Bentham justify normative hedonism?

By claiming pleasure and pain are the sovereign masters of human life.

For Kant, what makes the right thing right?

The motive/intention of the agent.

From which motive must one act to be moral?

From duty.

What does it mean to have a moral duty?

You must act from respect for moral law, regardless of consequences.

What is the main function of the Categorical Imperative?

To test whether a maxim can be universalized.

How does the Categorical Imperative show stealing is wrong?

If everyone stole, property would lose meaning — maxim is self-defeating.

Would a deontologist allow sacrificing a newborn for others’ well-being?

No — that treats the child as a means, not an end.

The Categorical Imperative requires what of maxims?

They must apply consistently to all rational agents and advance their goals.

What is the Second Formulation of the Categorical Imperative?

“Treat humanity… never simply as a means, but always at the same time as an end.”

Is acting morally = acting autonomously?

Yes.

Is a good will one that wants all people to flourish?

No — it is one that acts from duty.

Why does a maxim of making false promises violate the CI?

It is self-defeating if universalized.

What is a “false negative” criticism of deontology?

CI sometimes rules permissible acts as wrong.

How should one assess morality of an action according to Kant?

By testing the maxim with the Categorical Imperative..

Why is treating someone as a thing immoral?

It fails to respect their capacity for free choice.

Is morality just reasoning about best means to our goals?

No — it is reasoning about universal moral law.

Difference between autonomy and heteronomy?

Autonomy = acting from moral law you give yourself. Heteronomy = acting from desires/external influences.

What are inclinations?

Desires, emotions, or natural impulses.

Does heteronomy mean freely choosing to act by a moral principle?

No — that’s autonomy.

Is it moral to act from sympathy, per Kant?

Not necessarily — only if in line with duty.

What is the Problem of Relevant Description?

How to correctly describe a maxim for CI testing.

Is a virtue an excellence corresponding to a thing’s function?

Yes.

Does virtue have an intellectual component?

Yes.

According to the function argument, what is objective happiness?

Excellent use of reason in one’s life.

How do good and happiness relate for Aristotle?

To be good is the same as to be happy (flourishing).

How do we determine right action in virtue ethics?

By asking what a virtuous person would do.

Do we learn virtues by practicing them?

Yes.

How do we discover the highest good (Aristotle)?

By finding the human function (reason).

What two features does the highest good have?

Self-sufficiency and completeness.

Is a telos a maxim?

No — it is a purpose or function.

What is the secondary moral question in virtue ethics?

Who should I be?”

What is the Doctrine of the Mean?

Virtue is the mean between extremes of excess and deficiency.

How do virtues relate to objective happiness?

They are parts of objective happiness.

What is the proper relation between reason and desire?

Use reason to accept/reject desires appropriately.

Is objective happiness a feeling or a fact?

A fact.

What is situationism?

The criticism that people lack stable virtues and just react to situations.

How do we discover a thing’s nature?

By examining its function (telos).

What is a telos?

The purpose or final end of a thing.

Why must there be a final end/highest good?

Because otherwise desires would be infinite/regressive.

What is the final end/highest good?

Eudaimonia (flourishing/happiness).

How does Aristotle define good?

That which everything aims at.

What is the distinctive human function?

Use of reason.

How do virtues relate to human function?

They enable excellent rational activity.

Why is it important to acquire virtues?

They lead to flourishing and good character.

Is virtue theory focused on evaluating actions or character?

Character.