Ethics - aspect/varieties of consequentialism

non-direct standard for evaluation

the action's adherence to rules for acting in similar situations ex. rule-consequentialism, rule-utilitarianism

Rule Consequentialism

the normative ethical theory that says that actions are morally right as much as it conforms to a rule which typically produces the best possible consequence in similar situations

Rule Utilitarianism

a utilitarian theory asserting that the morally right action is the one covered by a rule that if generally followed would produce the most favorable balance of good over evil, everyone considered

outcome (1)

actual vs. expected

actual outcome

G=F actual consequences, regardless of expectations ex. moral luck

expected outcome

G=F extent to which predicted consequences occur ex. probability

Standard for evaluation

direct vs. indirect

direct standard for evaluation

the situation specific appropriateness of the action ex. act-consequentialism, act-utilitarianism

Act Consequentialism

An action is right if and only if (and because) its consequences would be at least as good as the consequences of any alternative action that the agent might instead perform.

Act Utilitarianism

assesses each separate act according to whether it maximizes pleasure over pain

measure

equal vs. non-equal consideration

equal consideration

all beings count equally - "equal" = terms of outcomes

non-equal consideration

all beings do not count equally - "privilege" in terms of outcome

outcome (2)

maximization vs. improvement

maximization

consequences must be best presently possible

improvement

consequences must be better than present average

values

goal/objective: monistic vs. pluaralistic

monistic

one value

Pluralistic

multiple values/goals/ends

scope

value restricted vs. non- value restricted

value-restricted

normative ethical values assessed/only values assessed; narrow

non-value restricted

normative ethical values + other important considerations assessed; wider

scope of considerations

universalist vs. non-universalist

universalist

consequences for everyone in a population

non-universalist

consequences for a subset of a population

measure (agent)

agent neutral vs. agent relative

agent neutral

agent and observer have shared expectations for consequence evaluation

agent relative

agent and observer have different expectations for consequence evaluation

aggregative measure

based on the sum of utility created fir all individual lives in a population

anti-aggregative measure

based on weighing all values/ ranking all sets of values in all possible worlds (dynamic, comprehensive, ambitious)

total measure

sum of all consequences on affected beings

average measure

means of consequences for all affected beings

instrumental ends

when ends are a means to attain a more distant goal

intrinsic ends

ends that are achieved for their own sake, they become standards for evaluating moral actions; values, the utility is self evident

Psychological Hedonism

the doctrine that all human action is motivated by the desire to maximize pleasure and minimize pain by nature

hume's is/ought distinction & the naturalistic fallacy

critique of psychological hedonism: you cannot take a description and make it a prescription; just because it is, does not mean it should be
applied to hedonism: just because we are inherently motivated by maximizing pleasure and minimizing pain does not mean we should base our ethics in that

act consequentialism

The normative ethical theory that says that an act is morally right just because it produces the best actual, expected, or possible consequences

act utilitarianism

assesses each separate act according to whether it maximizes pleasure over pain

hedonic calculus

Bentham's 7 step calculator for determining whether an action will produce more pleasure than pain for the greatest number
1. intensity
2. duration
3. certainty
4. propinquity
5. fecundity
6. purity
7. extent
1-4 for situation itself
5-7 for foresight

intensity (I)

how potent is the pleasure or pain

duration (d)

how long does the pleasure or pain last

certainty (c)

What is the probability that the pleasure or pain will occur?

propinquity (n)

how soon will the pleasure or pain occur

fecundity (f)

what is the probability that the pleasure produces more pleasures

purity (p)

What is the probability that the pain will lead to other pains?

extent (e)

how many persons are affected by the pleasure

utility

the idea of usefulness; we should so whatever is useful in increasing good

Preference Utilitarianism (Singer)

Utilitarianism that promotes/maximizes the preferences of those who are involved in the situation

Swine ethic

A criticism of Bentham's approach, implying that it invites people to be 'pleasure hogs' & hedonists; Mill's introduction of 'quality' is an attempt to rescue utilitarianism from this criticism

Tyranny of the Majority (Mill)

The potential of a majority to monopolize power for its own gain to the detriment of minority rights and interests.

Mill on pleasure

higher pleasures and lower pleasures

Higher Pleasures (Mill)

pursuing knowledge, appreciating beauty, creating art; intellectual; eudaimonia

lower pleasures

Pleasures of the body - according to Mill these are shallower & ultimately less fulfilling

Nozick's plug-in experiment

a philosophical scenario where you are presented with the option to plug yourself into a machine that can simulate any pleasurable experience you desire
Authenticity: Many people argue that even if the simulated experiences feel real, they lack the authenticity of genuine interactions and achievements in the real world.
Meaning and purpose: Living a life solely focused on pleasure might lack meaning and purpose that comes from facing challenges and contributing to something larger than oneself.
Relationships: The inability to have real connections with others in a simulated world is another major concern

Rand (Egoism)

psychological egoism: we are driven by our own self interest

Ethical Egoism (Rand)

we should act on our own self interest if it is rational

Rational Egoism (Rand)

the principle that an action is rational if and only if it maximizes one's self-interest. suspend immediate gratification for sustained goals

Individual Egoism

I will act in my own self-interest, and everyone else should act in my self-interest too.

Universal Egoism

Each person should act in their own self-interest. I will act in my own self-interest, and you should act in your own self-interest.

Aristipus

all in on the lower pleasures
Maximize pleasure=maximize happiness

Epicurus

believed that great happiness and pleasure could be achieved through the avoidance of pain and fear
can follow higher pleasures to an extent but can't neglect lower pleasures

problems with hedonism & egoism

1. how do you differentiate higher and lower pleasures
2. what are the standards for judging the standards
3. egoistic hedonism seems to present us with a world where we should have no regard for others

principle of utility

Greatest good for the greatest number

Nietzsche's egoism

good = anything that heightens the feeling of power; power is not control over others

Power (Nietzsche)

not for the sake of something else; power to be the very best you for you, in the context of the world

Herd Morality (Nietzsche)

describes the morality of the masses, who he believed to live by group instincts and lack individual will. Nietzsche believed that herd morality promotes conformity, modesty, and submissiveness, and that it limits human potential. Morality engaged in a war, a common war on all that is strange, rare, and privileged; higher men, soul duty = anything that possesses excellence or requires excellence
we make rules up these rules appeal to the herd

mass approval (Nietzsche)

mediocrity

resentment of being ordinary

those who are ordinary resent greatness. what people can't have but they want, they resent it and demonize it

identity foreclosure

A person has a sense of identity but has failed to identify an identity crisis (unquestionably adopts the values and expectations of others)

Nietzsche's revaluation of all morals

people should create their own values, rather than following a set moral code. Nietzsche believed that people should base their values on their own will to power, and that society and religion impose unnecessary moral codes

apollonian vs. Dionysian aspects of selves

"Apollonian" represents the rational, ordered, and controlled aspects of the self, while "Dionysian" embodies the passionate, chaotic, and ecstatic aspects, essentially signifying the balance between reason and emotion within a person. we repress the Dionysian side of ourselves, we must bring it back and balance with the Apollonian side of ourselves

Will to Power (Nietzsche)

This is the essence of all things. You overcome the environment; you have the will to dominate other people and will to dominate oneself. It is expressed, channeled into other things and it can be repressed. Even when it is repressed the will, will still come out in cracks and leaks as resentment.

Bentham

British writer, reformer, and philosopher whose systematic analysis of law and legislation laid the foundations of utilitarianism.

Consequentialism

an ethical system that determines the level of goodness or evil from the effect or result of an act

consequentialism as a subtype of teleological ethics

consequential ethics employs a standard: telos ( realization of a purpose or end which an action's consequences are judged "good" or "bad")