mega IGR review

"Define stereotype in the context of social groups."

"Define stereotype in the context of social groups."

"A stereotype is a set of positive or negative beliefs that we hold about the characteristics of social groups."

"Describe the concept of outgroup homogeneity."

"Outgroup homogeneity is the tendency to view members of outgroups as more similar to one another than we perceive members of our ingroups."

"Explain how ingroup homogeneity differs from outgroup homogeneity."

"Ingroup homogeneity involves viewing members of our own group as more different from one another than members of outgroups are from each other."

"How does categorization affect our perception of social groups?"

"Categorization causes members of groups to appear more similar, leading to biases about ingroups and outgroups."

"Discuss the impact of early exposure to faces on social perception."

"Our ability to distinguish differences between faces is influenced by the faces we are exposed to in the first few months of life, regardless of our own race."

"What is ingroup favoritism and how does it manifest?"

"Ingroup favoritism is the tendency to respond more positively to members of our ingroups, often leading to biased evaluations and behaviors."

"Identify the factors that contribute to ingroup favoritism."

"Familiarity, perceived similarity, self-enhancement, and the need for group protection contribute to ingroup favoritism."

"Describe the ultimate attribution error."

"The ultimate attribution error is the tendency to make trait attributions that benefit our ingroups, often overlooking negative traits in our own group."

"How does ingroup favoritism relate to feelings of threat?"

"Ingroup favoritism tends to increase when individuals feel threatened, leading them to compliment their group and derogate outgroups."

"Who is Henri Tajfel and what is his significance in psychology?"

"Henri Tajfel was a Polish-Jewish psychologist known for his research on social identity and ingroup favoritism, influenced by his experiences during WWII."

"Summarize the findings of Tajfel's study with high school boys."

"Tajfel's study found that participants displayed ingroup favoritism by allocating more money to ingroup members than to outgroup members, even when groups were arbitrarily assigned."

"What does Tajfel's study suggest about the nature of groups?"

"Tajfel's study suggests that groups are inherently arbitrary and exist primarily because we perceive them to be present."

"Explain the purpose of Perdue et al.'s experiment in 1990."

"Perdue et al.'s experiment aimed to investigate whether the results of Tajfel's experiments were due to ingroup favoritism or outgroup antipathy."

"What were the results of Perdue et al.'s experiment regarding ingroup and outgroup terms?"

"Participants showed more positive emotions toward nonsense syllables associated with ingroup terms than those associated with outgroup terms, indicating ingroup favoritism without outgroup antipathy."

"How does ingroup favoritism differ from outgroup antipathy according to Perdue et al.?"

"Perdue et al. found that participants loved their ingroup but did not exhibit hatred toward the outgroup, suggesting that outgroup antipathy was not a factor."

"Describe the masked priming procedure used in Experiment 2."

"Participants were shown an ingroup or outgroup prime word before rating an adjective as good or bad."

"What were the results of the priming experiment regarding positive and negative adjectives?"

"Participants rated positive adjectives as good faster when primed with an ingroup word and rated negative adjectives as bad faster when primed with an outgroup word."

"Explain the concept of ingroup favoritism."

"Ingroup favoritism refers to the tendency to favor one's own group over others, often leading to positive evaluations of ingroup members."

"How does the Black Sheep effect influence perceptions of ingroup members?"

"The Black Sheep effect leads to ingroup members being viewed more negatively than outgroup members when they threaten the positive image of the group."

"What is scapegoating in the context of ingroup and outgroup dynamics?"

"Scapegoating is the act of blaming an outgroup when the ingroup feels threatened in achieving a desired outcome."

"Define ostracism and its impact on individuals."

"Ostracism is being ignored and excluded by others, which can drive conformity and affect feelings of belonging."

"How does age affect the emotional impact of ostracism?"

"The negative emotional effects of ostracism are less intense as individuals age."

"What does the minimal group paradigm explain?"

"The minimal group paradigm explains the emergence of ingroup favoritism and outgroup bias through simple group categorization."

"Identify factors that moderate the expression of ingroup favoritism."

"Factors include group identification, authoritarianism, social dominance orientation (SDO), and other-concern."

"How do infants and children demonstrate a natural inclination towards cooperation?"

"Infants and children are naturally prosocial, often comforting adults in distress and identifying needs before they can talk."

"What expectations do children have regarding group members by preschool age?"

"Children expect group members to share preferences and traits and negatively evaluate those who do not follow ingroup norms."

"Discuss the development of children's moral judgments in relation to stereotypes."

"Children's moral judgments are less malleable than stereotype judgments, with fairness being prioritized over group expectations."

"What is Tajfel's Social Identity Theory?"

"Tajfel's Social Identity Theory posits that social identity arises from social categorization, leading to ingroup and outgroup distinctions and biases."

"How does group identification influence ingroup favoritism?"

"Individuals who strongly identify with their groups tend to exhibit greater ingroup favoritism, enhancing their social identity through group membership."

"What role does authoritarianism play in ingroup favoritism?"

"Individuals high in authoritarianism show stronger ingroup favoritism due to their preference for simplicity and traditional values."

"Explain the relationship between social dominance orientation (SDO) and ingroup favoritism."

"Individuals high in SDO endorse social hierarchies and inherent group differences, leading to stronger ingroup favoritism."

"How do children’s perceptions of stereotypes change from ages 6 to 10?"

"Only 18% of 6-year-olds made stereotype-based judgments, while 93% of 10-year-olds did, indicating a sophistication in stereotype reasoning."

"What motivates children to sustain a positive social identity according to Tajfel's theory?"

"Children are motivated to affirm positive associations with their ingroup by following ingroup rules and benefiting the ingroup."

"Describe the findings of Experiment 1 regarding children's categorization of faces."

"Children aged 3-14 were more likely to categorize angry faces as black, showing ingroup favoritism as soon as they understood intergroup categories."

"How do children learn about stereotypes according to the content?"

"Children learn about stereotypes from peers, parents, and media, rather than forming them from personal experiences."

"Define ingroup favoritism as observed in the experiments."

"Ingroup favoritism refers to the tendency of individuals to favor members of their own group over those of other groups, as seen in children's categorization of faces."

"What was the outcome of Experiment 4 with black children aged 4-10?"

"There was no overall effect of facial expression on categorization, indicating that ingroup favoritism was not occurring among minority members."

"How do parents influence children's perceptions of race?"

"Parents can transmit stereotypes directly or indirectly, and their attitudes about race significantly affect children's implicit preferences."

"What role do peers play in the development of stereotypes in children?"

"As children grow, they tend to favor stereotypic messages from peers over those from parents, often rejecting parental messages about racial inclusion."

"Explain the impact of exposure to diversity on children's stereotypes."

"Exposure to diversity can lead to the creation of new stereotypes, reinforce existing ones, or debunk them, depending on the nature of intergroup contact."

"How did the study by Wood & Sonleitner (1996) relate intergroup contact to racial prejudice?"

"The study found that white adults who had interracial contact as children reported less anti-Black prejudice, suggesting that positive intergroup experiences can reduce stereotypes."

"What did Killen et al. (2010) discover about children from high and low racial diversity schools?"

"Children from low contact groups displayed high use of stereotypes, while those from high contact schools showed less stereotyping and viewed racial exclusion as wrong."

"What happens when children experience negative intergroup contact?"

"The content suggests that negative intergroup contact can reinforce stereotypes and lead to negative perceptions of outgroup members."

"Describe the findings of the study involving white male participants and their interactions with black and white confederates."

"White males spent less time interacting with black confederates compared to white confederates, especially after witnessing a black couple arguing."

"Define ingroup favoritism and its relation to prejudice."

"Ingroup favoritism refers to the preference for one's own group, which is similar to prejudice that arises from intergroup relations rather than just individual feelings."

"How does social categorization develop in children?"

"Social categorization in children develops through perceptual, conceptual, and social processes, influenced by familiarity and environmental factors."

"Explain the role of language in social categorization."

"Language shapes social categorization by labeling individuals with specific group names, which strengthens categorization and can lead to stronger biases."

"What is the impact of social categorization on intergroup evaluations?"

"Social categorization influences intergroup evaluations and behaviors, leading to the development of evaluative preferences and stereotypes that can affect academic achievement."

"How does the Realistic Group Conflict Theory explain intergroup relations?"

"Realistic Group Conflict Theory posits that perceived competition over resources can lead to efforts to limit access for other groups, historically related to physical resources and currently often about maintaining status."

"Describe the findings of Maddux et al. (2008) regarding competition and attitudes."

"The study found that white participants competing against Asian opponents had lower attitudes and feelings towards them, demonstrating how competition can affect intergroup attitudes."

"What are the differences between negative and positive interdependence in group dynamics?"

"Negative interdependence occurs when one group's success is at the expense of another, leading to obstructive behaviors, while positive interdependence values cooperation, rewarding both individual and group success."

"Summarize the goals of the Robbers Cave Experiment."

"The Robbers Cave Experiment aimed to investigate how quickly group identity is formed among participants."

"How do children develop beliefs about group homogeneity and essentialism?"

"Children gradually learn to recognize social groupings and develop beliefs about group homogeneity and essentialism as they grow and interact with their environment."

"What strategies can mitigate the adverse effects of social categorization in children?"

"Strategies include promoting diverse experiences, challenging essentialist thinking, highlighting individual variability within groups, and fostering inclusive environments."

"Describe the perceptual foundations of social categorization in infants."

"Infants begin to attend to social category markers like race and gender within their first year of life, influenced by familiarity and environmental factors."

"How do social motivations influence social categorization?"

"Social motivations, particularly the desire to identify with one's own group, significantly shape social categorization, often leading to an in-group positivity bias."

"What are the consequences of social categorization on academic achievement?"

"Social categorization can lead to the development of stereotypes and evaluative preferences that negatively impact academic achievement and other domains."

"Describe the phases of the Robbers Cave experiment."

"The Robbers Cave experiment consisted of three phases: Phase 1 involved group bonding where hierarchy and leaders were established; Phase 2 was a competition phase that led to fights and retaliation; Phase 3 included neutral contact that still resulted in conflict, followed by a phase with superordinate goals that fostered cooperation."

"How does positive interdependence affect intergroup relations?"

"Positive interdependence improves intergroup relations by fostering cooperation and reducing prejudice, as seen in the Robbers Cave experiment where shared goals led to a common group identity."

"Define the concept of recategorization in the context of intergroup bias."

"Recategorization involves creating a more inclusive group identity that encompasses both in-group and out-group members, often through shared identities or superordinate goals."

"What ethical considerations were raised in the Robbers Cave experiment?"

"The Robbers Cave experiment raised ethical concerns such as high emotional and physical risks for children, lack of parental informed consent, and the inability for children to withdraw from the study."

"How can social categorization lead to intergroup bias?"

"Social categorization can amplify perceived differences between groups, leading to in-group favoritism and various manifestations of bias, such as in reward allocation and empathy."

"Explain the concept of mutual differentiation as a strategy to reduce intergroup conflict."

"Mutual differentiation involves fostering cooperative interdependence while acknowledging and respecting the distinctiveness of each group, allowing for collaboration without erasing group identities."

"What was the main finding of Neir et al. (2001) regarding ingroup bias?"

"Neir et al. (2001) found that participants showed a higher willingness to help when approached by interviewers from the same team, demonstrating ingroup bias based on shared identity."

"How does decategorization function as a strategy for mitigating intergroup bias?"

"Decategorization involves personalized interactions that break down outgroup stereotypes and foster individual perceptions, helping to reduce bias between groups."

"Summarize the key findings of the Robbers Cave experiment regarding intergroup conflict."

"The Robbers Cave experiment demonstrated that mere categorization can instigate intergroup bias, while superordinate goals can foster cooperation and trigger processes that reduce bias over time."

"What role do superordinate goals play in intergroup cooperation?"

"Superordinate goals play a crucial role in fostering intergroup cooperation by providing a shared objective that encourages collaboration and diminishes hostility between groups."

"Describe the impact of competition on intergroup relations as observed in the Robbers Cave experiment."

"Competition for scarce resources led to negative interdependence, resulting in worse intergroup relations characterized by hostility and conflict between the groups."

"How can the strategies of decategorization, recategorization, and mutual differentiation work together?"

"These strategies can be complementary, with one potentially leading to another over time, creating a more effective approach to reducing intergroup bias and fostering harmony."

"What is the significance of the Robbers Cave experiment in understanding intergroup conflict?"

"The Robbers Cave experiment is significant as it illustrates how competition can breed hostility and how cooperation towards shared goals can dismantle barriers, providing insights into intergroup dynamics."

"Describe the Realistic Conflict Theory as validated by the Robbers Cave experiment."

"The Realistic Conflict Theory posits that competition for limited resources leads to negative intergroup attitudes and behaviors, as demonstrated by the Rattlers and Eagles competing for prizes and status, resulting in hostility, name-calling, vandalism, and physical aggression."

"How do superordinate goals help mitigate intergroup conflict?"

"Superordinate goals require collaborative efforts from conflicting groups, fostering a shift in perception from 'us' vs. 'them' to a unified 'we,' as seen in the Robbers Cave experiment where groups worked together on tasks."

"Define decategorization and recategorization in the context of intergroup relations."

"Decategorization involves seeing outgroup members as distinct individuals rather than a homogenous enemy, while recategorization promotes the perception of belonging to a larger, inclusive group, both of which are facilitated by cooperative tasks."

"What are some real-world applications of the findings from the Robbers Cave experiment?"

"The findings suggest that emphasizing superordinate goals can alleviate tensions in contexts like healthcare mergers, desegregated schools, and workplace conflicts by fostering collaboration and shared objectives."

"Explain the concept of Social Identity and its importance."

"Social Identity is the portion of an individual’s self-concept derived from group membership, influencing self-esteem and necessitating the confirmation of group supremacy to enhance positive distinctiveness and decrease negative distinctiveness."

"What is Basking in Reflected Glory (BIRG) and how does it manifest in social identity?"

"BIRG is the act of publicly announcing one's association with successful others, such as students wearing school apparel and using 'we' after a university football team wins, aimed at enhancing public image, especially when it is threatened."

"Summarize the findings of Sachdev & Bourhis (1987) regarding social identity in intergroup contexts."

"The study found that high-status groups favored their in-group when informed their group was based on creativity, aiming to demonstrate superiority, while equal-status groups engaged in in-group favoritism."

"How can organizations manage conflict between departments using principles from the Robbers Cave experiment?"

"Organizations can manage interdepartmental conflict by encouraging collaborative projects and emphasizing shared organizational goals, which can reduce friction and improve cooperation."

"What role does positive self-esteem play in social identity?"

"Positive self-esteem is crucial as it must confirm the supremacy of one's group, leading to increased positive distinctiveness and decreased negative distinctiveness."

"Describe the impact of shared goals in desegregated schools according to the findings from the Robbers Cave experiment."

"In desegregated schools, fostering participation in extracurricular activities with shared goals can bridge racial and ethnic divides, enhancing intergroup relations by highlighting individual contributions and a shared school identity."

"Describe the coping mechanisms for low-status groups."

"Low-status groups utilize three main coping mechanisms: Individual Mobility (leaving the group), Social Creativity (changing comparison targets to improve perception), and Agitation for Social Change (rebelling against the status hierarchy)."

"Define relative deprivation and provide an example."

"Relative deprivation is the subjective dissatisfaction one feels when comparing oneself to others or to one's past. An example is non-Indigenous individuals feeling deprived of benefits received by Indigenous people, such as tax exemptions."

"How do high-status group members react when their status is threatened according to Scheepers et al. (2009)?"

"High-status group members in unstable conditions experience heightened blood pressure, indicating stress when their status is threatened."

"Explain the findings of Scheepers et al. (2009) regarding male participants in debates."

"Men experienced higher stress (increased blood pressure) during progressive debates, indicating anxiety over changing gender roles, while experiencing less stress during conservative debates."

"What is the Authoritarian Personality as described by Adorno et al. (1950)?"

"The Authoritarian Personality is characterized by a preference for simplicity, traditional values, intolerance of ambiguity, rigidity, and higher rates of in-group favoritism."

"How does Social Dominance Theory differentiate between individuals?"

"Social Dominance Theory distinguishes individuals based on their belief in intergroup relations: those with high Social Dominance Orientation believe in group hierarchy and domination, while those with low orientation believe in group equality."

"What historical example illustrates the impact of relative deprivation on violence?"

"The historical example of white-on-black violence between 1882 and 1930, which occurred when cotton prices fell, illustrates how feelings of relative deprivation can lead to increased violence."

"Describe the relationship between relative deprivation and prejudice."

"Feelings of relative deprivation can lead to increased prejudice, frustration, and scapegoating, such as blaming immigrants for job scarcity."

"What was the outcome of Crawford & Naditch's (1970) study on the Detroit riots?"

"The study found that individuals with high relative deprivation felt that riots helped change attitudes, while those with low relative deprivation believed persuasion was more effective than riots."

"How does the concept of 'Need for Cognition' relate to contemporary findings on prejudice?"

"Contemporary findings suggest that prejudice is not associated with personality traits like the Authoritarian Personality, but rather with a low 'Need for Cognition', indicating a preference for less effortful cognitive activities."

"Describe the cognitive Misner hypothesis."

"The cognitive Misner hypothesis suggests that a low need for cognition leads to higher rates of prejudice, while a high need for personal structure and cognitive closure results in a preference for clear, straightforward answers rather than ambiguity."

"Define social identity theory."

"Social identity theory posits that enhancing self-esteem involves promoting the positive distinctiveness of one’s group."

"How do high-status groups respond to instability in their status?"

"High-status groups respond to instability with stress and strategic behavior."

"Explain the concept of relative deprivation."

"Relative deprivation refers to the perception of being worse off compared to others, which can lead to prejudice and scapegoating, especially during economic hardship."

"What physiological responses are observed in high-status groups facing social identity threat?"

"High-status groups exhibit physiological signs of threat, such as changes in blood pressure, even when they outwardly express confidence."

"How do physiological measures differ from self-report measures in assessing social identity threat?"

"Physiological measures provide a more direct reflection of emotional experiences and are less susceptible to social desirability bias compared to self-report measures."

"What were the key findings from Experiment 1 of the study?"

"In Experiment 1, high-status group members showed increased systolic blood pressure and pulse pressure when intergroup status differences were unstable, indicating a physiological threat response."

"Discuss the implications of the study regarding intergroup dynamics."

"The study highlights that high-status groups are vulnerable to social identity threat, particularly when facing potential status loss, and emphasizes the need to address the negative consequences of threat responses."

"What does the study suggest about the relationship between expressed attitudes and underlying emotional experiences?"

"The study reveals discrepancies between consciously expressed attitudes and underlying emotional experiences, indicating that individuals may mask their true feelings based on the audience."

"How did male participants respond in Experiment 2 regarding gender relations?"

"In Experiment 2, male participants exhibited increased systolic blood pressure and pulse pressure when discussing changing gender-status relations, particularly with female participants, while expressing higher levels of sexism in intragroup contexts."