Chapter one CONCEPTIONAL QUESTIONS

what is the monty hall problem?

The Monty Hall problem is a probability puzzle that shows how intuition can conflict with logic and evidence: a contestant chooses one of three doors (one hiding a car and two hiding goats) and after the host, who knows the answer, opens a door revealing a goat, the contestant must decide whether to stay with their original choice or switch to the other door.

what were the results of the Monty Hall problem?

switching doors doubles the chance of winning. staying gives you a 1/3 probability while switching gives you a 2/3 probability.

why does intuition fail in the monty hall problem?

A common belief is that once two doors remain, the odds are 50–50, but this is a mistake because the host’s action is not random (the host always avoids the car) and the host’s choice reveals important information.

what are the 5 methods of acquiring knowledge?

Tenacity, Authority, Reason, Empiricism, and Science (Systematic Empiricism)

what are the goals of scientists?

scientists aims to describe, explain, predict, and control.

what are the characteristics of science?

Science relies on the scientific method and is defined by a set of characteristics that guide how scientists collectively acquire and apply knowledge, including the assumptions that events are not random and that science is empirical. It requires clear, operational definitions based on specific procedures, transparency through public reporting and peer evaluation, and the ability for findings to be replicated. Finally, scientific knowledge is tentative rather than absolute, as it is self-correcting, ever-evolving, and open to refinement when new evidence emerges.

whats an example of a science research?

Psychopath exists everywhere, detectable by traits

whats an example of a pseudoscience research?

Myers Briggs personality test

whats an example of tendency?

“It must be 50/50. I don’t care what the math says.” Even experts rejected correct solutions because the belief felt obvious

what are the strengths and weaknesses of tendency?

simple and psychologically comforting but poor at correcting false beliefs

whats an example of authority?

students trusting professors and textbooks or Mathematicians rejecting Marilyn vos Savant’s answer because other experts disagreed

what are the strengths and weaknesses of authority?

can be a quick way to get an answer to your question but experts can disagree, experts can be wrong, non-experts may appear credible, and people dismiss authorities who challenge their beliefs

whats an example of reason?

Premise A: Infants don’t understand object permanence until 9 months. Premise B: Infants understand it by 7 months. Same infant but opposite conclusions

what are the strengths and weaknesses of reason?

constructs theories, derives hypotheses, interprets evidence, but valid logic depends entirely on true premises which means different premises lead to different conclusions

whats an example of empiricism?

Watching several contestants play the game and recording wins/losses.

what are the weaknesses of empiricism?

limited experience, small or unrepresentative samples, biased interpretation and memory

whats an example of science?

solving the monty hall problem scientifically based on the odds.

why does science work better than other methods?

Reduces bias, overcomes intuition errors, allows belief revision

whats an example of conformity?

changing political views to fit in

what are some variables in a science experiment?

Height, hormone levels, aggression, gender, temperature, and test scores

what are 2 examples of descriptions in science?

Measuring rates of mental disorders and studying bullying frequency, type, and gender differences

what are levels of explanation?

biological factors (genes, hormones, brain), environmental factors (physical, social), and psychological factors (cognition, motivation)

what are the differences between distal and proximal causes?

distal causes are remote, background causes while proximal causes immediate triggers.

what are the 3 required conditions for causal inference?

Covariation (X changes → Y changes), temporal order (X occurs before Y), and no plausible alternative explanations (Other causes must be ruled out)

whats a common error of causal inference?

Confusing correlation with causation

what are the two roles of prediction?

theory & Hypothesis Testing (If explanation is correct then predictions should come true and predictions often phrased as if–then statements) and applied prediction (Using associations to forecast outcomes and it does not require causation)

where do we see “control” in research?

choosing variables, measuring variables, selecting participants, and manipulating variables (experiments)

whats an example of control in research?

Heat & Aggression. An observational study shows low control, while a laboratory experiment shows high control. In a lab experiment, temperature can be manipulated, and other factors held constant

what scientific goal (description, explanation, prediction, or control) is best illustrated by this example? “A cognitive psychologist develops a theory of human memory.”

explanation. A psychological theory explains why and how memory works by describing the mental processes behind remembering and forgetting, such as why repetition or emotion improves memory

what scientific goal (description, explanation, prediction, or control) is best illustrated by this example? “A company uses a job aptitude test to estimate future job performance.”

predicition. The company is not trying to explain why someone will be good at the job, but to predict future performance using test scores. Even without understanding the psychological mechanisms, the key is that higher scores reliably predict better job performance

what scientific goal (description, explanation, prediction, or control) is best illustrated by this example? “Studying infant attachment in a lab instead of at home”

control. By studying infants in a lab, psychologists can control the environment, timing, and caregiver behaviour, reducing distractions and allowing clearer conclusions about cause and effect, even if it is less natural than a home setting

what scientific goal (description, explanation, prediction, or control) is best illustrated by this example? “Estimating the percentage of adults with anxiety disorders”

description. The researchers aim to measure how common anxiety disorders are, not to explain their causes or predict who will develop them. Description is often the first step in science because it shows what is happening before explanation or intervention.

what are key assumptions in science?

Events are not random, these patterns have causes ,and we can discover those cause

how do scientists reduce bias when conducting research?

scientists use clear rules for measurement, use blind observers to hypotheses, and rely on peer review and replication

what does it mean for a question to be “testable”?

whats an example of falsifiability and what is not?

“This medicine cures headaches” is testable. “This medicine works in mysterious ways” is not testable.

what are 2 examples of empirical questions?

Does spanking increase aggression? What factors influence personality?

what are 2 examples of non-empirical questions?

Should people be wealthy or wise? Is stealing ever morally acceptable?

why does science require clear definitions?

They ensure clear communication, consistent use of terms, repeatable experiments, and trustworthy knowledge. Without them, confusion can cause misunderstandings, make teamwork harder, and prevent research from being verified.

whats an example of operational defintions?

"hunger" as the number of hours since the last meal

why are science results public?

Other scientists can evaluate it, studies can be repeated, and errors can be found and corrected

what does it mean for scientific knowledge to be sensitive?

the ethical implications of how that knowledge is acquired, shared, or used

how is science self correcting?

Mistakes, bias, and chance findings are corrected over time through: Replication, new methods and ongoing scrutiny

what are some limits of science?

Moral questions, questions of meaning or purpose, and questions based on faith

fill in the blank. “Three general scientific assumptions are that events ___, ___, and ___”

Events are not random (they show patterns), events have underlying causes, these causes can be discovered

fill in the blank. “Falsifiability is a criterion for judging whether a question is ___.”

testable. this matters because  Aaquestion is scientific only if you could, in principle, prove it wrong with evidence. If no evidence could ever contradict it, science has nothing to work with.

fill in the blank. “When scientists define concepts in terms of specific procedures, such definitions are called ___. why does it matter?”

operational definitions. This matters because words like stress, intelligence, or aggression are vague unless you explain how you measured them. Operational definitions turn abstract ideas into observable, measurable variables.

fill in the blank. “The process of repeating a study is called ___. Why does this matter?”

replication. This matters because one study can be wrong by chance or flawed methods. Replication checks whether a finding is reliable and reproducible, which is essential for trustworthy knowledge.

is this basic or applied research? why? “Improving executive functioning in children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders”

applied. The focus is on improving functioning in a specific population — solving a real-world problem

is this basic or applied research? why? “How narcissism shapes empathy”

basic. This study is about understanding psychological mechanisms, not fixing a practical issue directly.

is this basic or applied research? why? “Pilot navigation errors… identifying contributing factors and mitigating solutions”

applied. The goal is to reduce errors and increase safety, even though it may also inform theory.

how does this scenario benefit from the strengths of learning research methods? “Felicia (considering subliminal memory product)”

 She learns to be skeptical of testimonials (anecdotal evidence), ask whether claims are supported by controlled studies, and search scientific literature instead of trusting marketing.

how does this scenario benefit from the strengths of learning research methods? '“Jon (future clinical psychologist)”

research methods help him evaluate therapy research, choose evidence-based treatments, prepare for graduate school, and possibly join a research lab and get strong recommendations

how does this scenario benefit from the strengths of learning research methods? “Lavonne (future behavioral neuroscience researcher)”

research methods help her core train for a research career, build a foundation for advanced statistics and lab work, and its necessary for PhD-level research competence.

what is the difference between skepticism and cynicism?

skepticism: “show me good evidence.” cynicism: “I don’t believe anything”

how are skepticism and critical thinking related?

Skepticism motivates you to ask questions and critical thinking gives you the tools to answer them well.

list 4 critical thinking questions/

What exactly is being claimed?, Who is making the claim? What evidence supports it? How strong is that evidence?

whats an example of theory and hypothesis testing when referencing roles of prediction?

If frustration increases then aggression increases

what are 3 examples of applied predicition when referencing roles of prediction?

smoking predicts lung cancer (causal), high school grades predict college performance (noncausal), and lightning predicts thunder (mechanism unknown)