Psych MIdterm study

Development

Development

Systematic continuities and changes in the individual over the course of life.

Maturation

Developmental changes in the body or behavior resulting from the aging process rather than from learning or other experiences.

Learning

A relatively permanent change in behavior resulting from experiences or practice.

Normative development

Developmental changes typical of most or all members of a species.

Plasticity

Capacity for change; the potential for development to be shaped by experience.

Original sin

Concept that children are inherently negative and must be taught to redirect their selfish interests.

Tabula rasa

Idea that infants are born with a "blank slate" mind, acquiring knowledge and behaviors through experience.

Scientific method

Objective and replicable methods to gather data for testing theories or hypotheses.

Reliability

Consistency of measurement.

Validity

The extent to which a test measures what it is supposed to.

Cross-sectional design

Research design studying subjects from different age groups at the same time.

Longitudinal design

Research design studying one group of subjects repeatedly over time.

Microgenetic studies

Research design studying participants intensively over a short period to observe developmental changes.

Zone of proximal development

Vygotsky's concept of tasks too complex to master alone but achievable with guidance.

Ecological systems theory

Bronfenbrenner's model emphasizing the interaction of environmental systems on development.

Nature/nurture issue

Debate on the relative importance of biological predispositions and environmental influences in development.

Qualitative changes

Fundamental changes in individuals, making them different from before.

Emotional self-regulation

Strategies for managing emotions or adjusting emotional arousal.

Empathy

Ability to experience the same emotion as other people

Temperament

A person's characteristic modes of responding emotionally and behaviorally to environmental events

Behavioral inhibition

Tendency to withdraw from unfamiliar people or situations

Easy temperament

Child quickly establishes regular routines, good-natured, and adapts easily to novelty

Difficult temperament

Child is irregular in routines, adapts slowly to new experiences, and responds negatively and intensely

Slow to warm up temperament

Child is inactive, moody, and displays mild passive resistance to new routines

Goodness of fit model

Development is optimized when parenting practices match the child's temperament

Attachment

Close emotional relationship characterized by mutual affection and desire for proximity

Synchronized routines

Harmonious interactions where behaviors adjust to partner's feelings and behaviors

Asocial phase

First 6 weeks of life when infants respond favorably to social and nonsocial stimuli

Phase of indiscriminate attachments

Infants prefer social stimulation and protest when left alone, between 6 weeks and 6-7 months

Phase of specific attachment

Infants attach to one close companion, usually the mother, between 7-9 months

Secure base

Caregiver used as a base for exploration and emotional support

Phase of multiple attachments

Infants form attachments to companions other than the primary attachment figure

Secondary reinforcer

Neutral stimulus acquiring reinforcement value through association with other reinforcing stimuli

Imprinting

Young of certain species follow and become attached to moving objects

Preadapted characteristic

Attribute evolved to increase survival chances for the individual and species

Stranger anxiety

Wary reaction to unfamiliar persons

Separation anxiety

Wary reaction when separated from attached person(s)

Strange situation

Series of separation and reunion episodes to assess attachment quality

Secure attachment

Infant welcomes contact with a close companion and uses them as a secure base

Resistant attachment

Insecure bond with strong separation protest and resistance to caregiver contact

Avoidant attachment

Insecure bond with little separation protest and tendency to avoid caregiver

Disorganized attachment

Insecure bond with dazed appearance or seeking then avoiding caregiver

Attachment q-set (aqs)

Method to assess attachment security based on observations of attachment-related behaviors

Amae

Japanese concept of infant's total dependence on mother and presumption of mother's love

Caregiving hypothesis

Attachment type depends on caregiving received

Temperament hypothesis

Strange Situation measures infant temperaments rather than attachment quality

Internal working models

Cognitive representations of self, others, and relationships from interactions with caregivers

Self

Combination of physical and psychological attributes unique to each individual

Social cognition

Thinking about thoughts, feelings, motives, and behaviors of self and others

Proprioceptive feedback

Sensory information helping locate body position in space

Personal agency

Recognition that one can cause an event

Self-concept

Perceptions of unique attributes or traits

Self-recognition

Ability to recognize oneself in a mirror or photograph

Present self

Early self-representation recognizing current self but unaware of past implications

Extended self

Mature self-representation integrating past, current, and future self-representations

Categorical self

Classification of self along socially significant dimensions

Individualistic society

Values personalism and individual accomplishments over group goals

Collectivist society

Values cooperative interdependence and group well-being over individual

Identity

Sense of self, life direction, and societal fit

Social comparison

Defining and evaluating self by comparing to others

Achievement motivation

Willingness to strive for success and meet high standards

Mastery motive

Inborn motive to explore, understand, and control environment

Intrinsic achievement orientation

Desire to achieve for personal competence or mastery

Authoritative parenting

Flexible, democratic parenting style with guidance and warmth

Achievement attributions

Explanations for successes and failures

Achievement expectancy

Expectation of performance in achieving objectives

Incremental view or growth mindset of ability

Belief in improving ability through effort

Entity view or fixed mindset of ability

Belief in stable ability not influenced by effort

Mastery oriented

Persistence in challenging tasks due to belief in high ability or overcoming failures

Learned-helplessness orientation

Giving up after failure due to attributed lack of ability

Attribution retraining

Intervention to attribute failures to lack of effort

Person praise

Praise focusing on desirable personality traits fostering performance goals

Performance goals

Objective to display competencies in achievement contexts

Process-oriented praise

Praise