AP Language And Composition Methods of Development, Logical Fallacies and Types of Claims

Ad Hominem

one that attempts to invalidate an opponent’s position based on a personal trait or fact about the opponent rather than through logic

Example: Katherine is a bad choice for mayor because she didn’t grow up in this town

Red Herring

an attempt to shift focus from the debate at hand by introducing an irrelevant point.

Example: Having cavities in your teeth can be scary, but have you heard about the tooth fairy?

Strawman

one that misrepresents an opponent’s argument to make it easier to attack. Often, straw man arguments are hyperbolic, inaccurate versions of the oppositions claims

Example: Erin thinks we need to stop using all plastics, right now, to save the planet from climate change

Equivocation

a statement crafted to mislead or confuse readers or listeners by using multiple meanings or interpretations of a word or simply through unclear phrasing. This is different from lying in that a lie as an intentionally false utterance; equivocation is technically true but uses vague language deceptively

Example: I have the right to watch this movie. Therefore, it is right for me to watch it

Slippery Slope

the arguer claims a specific series of event will follow one starting point, typically with no supporting evidence for this chain of events

Example: If we allow students to retake on test, next they’ll expect to retake every test, and soon there won’t be any accountability in this school at all.  

Hasty Generalization

a statement made after considering just one or a few example rather than relying on more extensive research to back up the claim. It’s important to keep in mind that what constitutes suffcient research depends on the issue at hand and the statement being made about it

Example: I felt sick both times I ate pizza from Vito’s, so I must be allergic to something in pizza

Appeal to Authority

the arguer claims an authority figure’s expertise to support a claim despite this expertise being irrelevant or overstated.

Example: Eating eggs every day is bad for you because a popular celebrity chef said so

False Dilemma

claims there are only two options in a give situation. often, these two options are extreme opposites of each other, failing to acknowledge that other, more reasonable, options exist.   

Example: Either you’re with us, or you’re against us

Bandwagon Fallacy

the arguer claims that a certain action is the right thing to do because it’s popular

Example: All of my friends are skipping class today, so it must be okay to do it

Appeal to ignorance

a claim that something must be true because it hasn’t been proven false. It can also be a claim that something must be false because it hasn’t been proven true. This is also known as the burden of proof fallacy.

Example: There must be fairies living gin our attic because nobody’s ever proven that there aren’t fairies living in our attic

Circular argument

one that uses the same statement as both the premise an the conclusion. no new information or justification is introduced

Example: Peppers are the easiest vegetable to grow because I think pers are the easiest vegetable to grow.

Sunk cost Fallacy

the arguer justifies their decision to continue a specific course of action by the amount of time or money they’ve already spent on it

Example: I’m full from lunch, but I paid for this meal, so I guess I will eat everything here

Appeal to Pity

attempts to sway a reader’s or listener’s opinion by provoking them emotionally

Example: I know I should have been on time for the interview, but I woke up late and felt really bad about it, then the stress of being late made ti hard to concentrate on driving here

Casual Fallacy

one that implies a relationship between two things where one can’t actually be proven

Example: when ice cream sales are up, so are shark attacks. therefore, buying ice cream increases your risk of being bitten by a shark

Appeal to Hypocrisy

a rebuttal that responds to one claim with reactive criticism rather than with a response to the claim itself.

Example: “You don’t have enough experience to be the new leader“ “Neither do you!“

Claims of Fact

an assertion that argues whether something is true or untrue, whether it existed in the past, exists now, or will exist in the future.

Claim of Value

asserts a qualitative judgment about something; it argues whether something is good or bad, right or wrong, desirable or undesirable

Claims of Policy

an argument that advocated for a specific course of action, recommending that a rule, law or practice should or should not be changed or adopted