PSYC 4305 Chapter 1-6

Industrial/organizational psychology

a branch of psychology that applies the principles of psychology to the workplace

purpose of I/O psychology

“to enhance the dignity and performance of human beings, and the organizations they work in, by advancing the science and knowledge of human behavior”

main difference between I/O psychology and business fields

I/O psychology examines factors that affect the people in an organization, as opposed to the broader aspects of running an organization such as marketing channels, transportation networks, and cost accounting

scientist-practitioner model

A teaching model in which students are trained first to be scientists and second to be able to apply the science of their field to find solutions to real-world problems.

industrial approach

focuses on determining the competencies needed to perform a job, staffing the organization with employees who have those competencies, and increasing those competencies through training

organizational approach

creates an organizational structure and culture that will motivate employees to perform well, give them the necessary information to do their jobs, and provide working conditions that are safe and result in an enjoyable and satisfying work/life environment

personnel psychology

The field of study that concentrates on the selection and evaluation of employees.

organizational psychology

The field of study that investigates the behavior of employees within the context of an organization.

human factors/ergonomics

A field of study concentrating on the interaction between humans and machines.

year that Walter Dill Scott publishes The Theory of Advertising

1903

year that Walter Dill Scott publishes Increasing Human Efficiency in Business and Frederick Winslow Taylor publishes The Principles of Scientific Management

1911

year that Hugo Münsterberg publishes Psychology and Industrial Efficiency (German version published in 1910)

1913

year that Journal of Applied Psychology first published

1917

World War I provides I/O psychologists with first opportunity for large-scale employee testing and selection

1918

First Ph.D.s in I/O psychology awarded to Bruce Moore and Merrill Ream at Carnegie Tech

1921

First I/O text written by Morris Viteles

1932

Army Alpha

An intelligence test developed during World War I and used by the army for soldiers who can read.

Army Beta

An intelligence test developed during World War I and used by the army for soldiers who cannot read.

Frank Gilbreth and Lillian Moller Gilbreth

first scientists to improve productivity and reduce fatigue by studying the motions used by workers (pioneers in i/o psych)

four themes that characterized the early years of i/o psych

an emphasis on production and efficiency, an emphasis on statistical analysis, a focus on employee selection, and a balance between science and practice

before 1930, i/o psych was involved primarily in…

improving productivity through the selection and placement of employees and the application of financial incentives

after 1930, i/o psych expanded scope to include

the quality of the work environment, as well as the attitudes of employees

Hawthorne effect

When employees change their behavior due solely to the fact that they are receiving attention or are being observed.

four major changes to i/o psych in the 1980s & 1990s

1. increased use of sophisticated statistical techniques & methods of analysis

2. new interest in application of cognitive psychology to industry

3. increased interest in occupational health psychology

4. renewed interest in developing methods to select employees

factors impacting i/o psych

• rapid advances in technology

• changing demographic makeup of the workforce

• global economy

• high unemployment rates

• movements toward flexible work schedules

• family-friendly work policies

• fewer management levels

• population shifts from urban to suburban

• increasing cost of health-care

four common settings for employment of I/O psychologists

• education

• consulting firms

• private sector

• public sector

Graduate Record Exam (GRE)

A standardized admission test required by most psychology graduate schools. (score of 300 usually req. for admission)

hypothesis

an educated prediction about the answer to a question, usually based on a theory or logic

disadvantage of lab research

external validity , or generalizability , of results to organizations in the “real world.”

disadvantage of field research

What field research obviously gains in external validity it loses in control of extraneous variables that are not of interest to the researcher (internal validity).

research methods

• experiments

• quasi-experiments

• archival research

• observations

• surveys

• meta-analyses

most powerful research method

experimental method b/c only one that can determine cause-and-effect relationships

steps in conducting research

1. deciding what to research (what is the question)

2. form a hypothesis (what will happen)

3. provide theory/explanation (why it will happen)

4. search literature for similar research

5. decide location of study

6. decide research method

2 characteristics that define an experiment

1. manipulation of one of more independent variables

2. random assignment of subjects to experimental and control conditions

if either of these characteristics is missing, a research project cannot be called an experiment; instead, it is called a quasi-experiment, a study, a survey, or an investigation.

independent variable

question of interest that the researcher intentionally manipulates

dependent variable

the changes that occur from the manipulation of the independent variable

quasi-experiments

• often used to evaluate the results of a new program implemented by an organization

• research project lacking one of the two characteristics that define an experiment

archival research

involves using previously collected data or records to answer a research question

meta-analysis

statistical method of reaching conclusions based on previous research

A meta-analysis results in one number, called the mean effect size, which indicates the effectiveness of some variable.

Correlation coefficients (r) are used as the effect size when researchers are interested in the positive or negative relationship between two variables, and many studies use correlation as their statistical test.

A difference score (d) is used as the effect size when researchers are looking at the difference between two groups.

3 sub-fields of I/O psychology

• personnel psych

• organizational psych

• human factors

job analysis

The process of identifying how a job is performed, the conditions under which it is performed, and the personal requirements it takes to perform the job.

job description

written result of job analysis

Peter Principle

The idea that organizations tend to promote good employees until they reach the level at which they are not competent—in other words, their highest level of incompetence.

uniform guidelines

Federal guidelines used to guide an employer in establishing fair selection methods.

job crafting

A process in which employees unofficially change their job duties to better fit their interests and skills.

Ammerman technique

A job analysis method in which a group of job experts identifies the objectives and standards to be met by the ideal worker.

1. Convene a panel of experts that includes representatives from all levels of the organization.

2. Have the panel identify the objectives and standards that are to be met by the ideal incumbent.

3. Have the panel list the specific behaviors necessary for each objective or standard to be attained.

4. Have the panel identify which of the behaviors from step 3 are “critical” to reaching the objective.

5. Have the panel rank-order the objectives based on importance.

task inventory

A questionnaire containing a list of tasks each of which the job incumbent rates on a series of scales such as importance and time spent.

properly written task statement must contain…

• action

• object

  • maybe where, how, why and when as well

task analysis

The process of identifying the tasks for which employees need to be trained.

KSAOs

• knowledge: body of info needed to perform a task

• skill: proficiency to perform a learned task

• ability: basic capacity for performing a wide rang of different tasks, acquiring knowledge, or developing a skill

• other characteristics personal factors like personality, motivation and willingness and tangibles like licenses, degrees, and experience

Methods Providing General Information about Worker Activities

• Position Analysis Questionnaire: 300questions in six dimensions

• Job Structure Profile: A revised version of the Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) designed to be used more by the job analyst than by the job incumbent.

• job elements inventory: A structured job analysis technique developed by Cornelius and Hakel that is similar to the Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) but easier to read.

• functional job analysis: A structured job analysis technique developed by Cornelius and Hakel that is similar to the Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) but easier to read.

steps to conducting a job analysis

1. identify tasks performed

2. write task statements

3. rate task statements

4. determine essential KSAOs

5. select tests to tap KSAOs

Methods Providing Information about Tools and Equipment

• Job Components Inventory: A structured job analysis technique that concentrates on worker requirements for performing a job rather than on specific tasks.

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Methods Providing Information about the Work Environment

AET: An ergonomic job analysis method developed in Germany (Arbeitswissenschaftliches Erhebungsverfahren zur Tätigkeitsanalyse).

Methods Providing Information about Competencies

• Occupational Information Network: national job analysis system created by the federal government in 1998,

• critical incident technique: used to discover actual incidents of job behavior that make the difference between a job’s successful or unsuccessful performance

threshold traits analysis

This method is available only by hiring a particular consulting firm (Lopez and Associates), questionnaire’’s 33 item cover 5 trait categories (physical, mental. learned, motivational, and social).

Fleishman Job Analysis Survey (F-JAS)

requires incumbents or job analysts to view a series of abilities and to rate the level of ability needed to perform the job

Job Adaptability Inventory (JAI)

132-item inventory developed by Pulakos, Arad, Donovan, and Plamondon (2000) that taps the extent to which a job incumbent needs to adapt to situations on the job. The JAI has eight dimensions:

1. Handling emergencies or crisis situations

2. Handling work stress

3. Solving problems creatively

4. Dealing with uncertain and unpredictable work situations

5. Learning work tasks, technologies, and procedures

6. Demonstrating interpersonal adaptability

7. Demonstrating cultural adaptability

8. Demonstrating physically oriented adaptability

Personality-Related Position Requirements Form (PPRF)

developed by Raymark, Schmit, and Guion (1997) to identify the personality types needed to perform job-related tasks. The PPRF consists of 107 items tapping 12 personality dimensions that fall under the “Big 5” personality dimensions (openness to experience, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, and emotional stability).

Performance Improvements Characteristics (PIC)

Like the PPRF, the 48 questions on the PIC help determine which of the seven main personality traits are needed to perform a given job.

job evaluation

The process of determining the monetary worth of a job.

typically done in two stages: determining internal pay equity and determining external pay equity.

internal pay equity

The extent to which employees within an organization are paid fairly compared with other employees within the same organization.

compensable job factors

things about a job that make it worth more $$

examples:

• physical demands

• working conditions

• mental demands

• education requirements

• level of responsibility

steps for determining internal pay equity

1. Determining Compensable Job Factors

2. Determining the Levels for Each Compensable Factor

3. Determining the Factor Weights

external equity

worth of a job in comparison to the external market

determined by using salary surveys (sent to other organizations to find the “going rate”)

properly written job description contains:

a job title, a brief summary, an extensive list of work activities, a list of tools and equipment, information about the work context, compensation information, performance standards, and personal requirements.

Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC)

A branch of the Department of Labor charged with investigating and prosecuting complaints of employment discrimination.

ADR

Alternative dispute resolution

• grievance system

• mediation

grievance system

A process in which an employee files a complaint with the organization and a person or committee within the organization makes a decision regarding the complaint.

arbitration

A method of resolving conflicts in which a neutral third party is asked to choose which side is correct.

• binding: neither party can appeal the decision of the third party

• nonbinding: either party may appeal the decision (and take it to court)

outcomes of an EEOC investigation

• charge does not have merit: accepted- process ends, does not accept- issued a “right to sue” letter that lets them hire a private attorney to file the case themself

• charge has merit: EEOC will try to work out a settlement between claimant and employer without taking the case to court (e.g. job, promotion, payment of backwages, etc). settlement not reached> case goes to federal court

If a case goes to federal district court bc a settlement cannot be reached, who represents the person filing the complaint?

EEOC will physically and financially represent the complainant.

federally protected classes

any group of individuals specifically protected by federal law

• race

• color

• sex

• national origin

• religion, days of worship, worship practices, religious attire

• age

• disability

• pregnancy

• veteran status

bona fide occupational qualification (BFOQ)

A selection requirement that is necessary for the performance of job-related duties and for which there is no substitute.

four-fifths rule

When the selection ratio for one group (e.g., women) is less than 80% (four-fifths) of the selection ratio for another group (e.g., men), adverse impact is said to exist.

three criteria for a minimum qualification

it must be needed to perform the job, and not merely be a preference; it must be formally identified and communicated prior to the start of the selection process; and it must be consistently applied.

Organizations can be held liable for the sexual harassment of their employees. what forms?

• quid pro quo

• hostile environment

Affirmative action

consists of a variety of strategies, such as intentional recruitment of minority applicants, identification and removal of employment practices working against minority applicants and employees, and preferential hiring and promotion.

Qualified workforce

The percentage of people in a given geographic area who have the qualifications (skills, education, etc.) to perform a certain job.

employee recruitment methods

• media ads (newspaper or electronic media)

• point-of-purchase (inexpensive, advertising on receipts, boxes, etc)

• recruiters

• employment agencies & search firms

• employee referrals (used by over 3-4ths of companies)

• direct mail

• internet

• job fairs

• special recruit populations (increase applicant diversity)

employment agencies vs executive search firms

employment agencies: find matches and then charge either the applicant or the company (10% - 30% of year one salary)

executive search firms: charge company only; higher paying jobs; 30% fee

realistic job previews

applicants are told both the positive and negative aspects

>often result in lower turnover

three characteristics of effective employee selection techniques

1. are valid

2. reduce the risk of legal challenges

3. cost-effective

types of interviews vary on….

• structure: highly structured are more reliable and valid & are a better job predictor

• style: number of interviewers and the number of interviewees (1:1 vs group etc)

• medium: face to face, telephone, zoom, etc

advantage of structured interviews

adds incremental validity to the use of other selection measures such as cognitive tests

issues with unstructured interviews

• poor intuitive ability

• lack of job relatedness (often times ‘illegal’ questions)

• primacy effects

• contrast effects

• negative-information bias

• interviewer-interviewee similarity

• interviewee appearance

creating a structured interview

a.Determining the KSAO’s to Tap in the Interview

b.Creating Interview Questions – clarifiers, disqualifiers, skill-level determinant, future focused questions, situational questions

c.Creating a Scoring Key for Interview Answers

i.Right/Wrong Scoring

ii.Typical-Answer Approach

iii.Key-Issues Approach – SMEs determine key issues that should be in an applicant’s response;