MAIA KATHARINA SERO - DEVELOPMENT PSYCHOLOGY MIDTERMS REVIEWER

sensiromotor stage

- The first of Piaget's four stages of cognitive development.

- Much of this early cognitive growth comes about through circular reactions, in which an infant learns to reproduce events originally discovered by chance.

SUBSTAGE 1: USE OF REFLEXES

- (birth to about 1 month)

- Infants understand the world through innate reflexes such as sucking, grasping, and looking.

- Babies use natural reflexes.

eg. newborns suck reflexively when their lips are touched. But they soon learn to find the nipple even when they are not touched, Sucking a bottle or grasping a finger.

SUBSTAGE 2:Primary Circular Reactions

1-4 months

- Babies repeat actions involving their own bodies.

E.g. Sucking their thumb repeatedly.

SUBSTAGE 3: SECONDARY CIRCULAR REACTIONS

- About 4-8 months

- Infants repeat actions that produce interesting effects on objects or the environment.

- Babies repeat actions involving objects.

e.g. a baby this age might repeatedly shake a rattle to hear the noise or coo when a friendly face appears so that it stays longer. Their actions are intentional but not goal-directed.

SUBSTAGE 4: COORDINATION OF SECONDARY SCHEMES

- 8 - 12 months

-Infants begin goal-directed behavior, combining actions intentionally to achieve a goal. Object permanence begins to develop.

- Babies act with a goal in mind.

- They will crawl to get something they want, grab it, or push away a barrier to it. They try out, modify, and coordinate previous schemes to find one that works.

E.g. Moving a pillow to get a toy.

SUBSTAGE 5: TERTIARY CIRCULAR REACTIONS

- about 12 - 18 months

- babies begin to experiment to see what will happen.

- By trial and error, toddlers try behaviors until they find the best Way to attain a goal.

- Toddlers experiment with different actions.

eg. a toddler may squeeze a rubber duck, then step on it, then throw it in order to see if all three actions result in squeaks, or drop a spoon to see what happens.

SUBSTAGE 6: MENTAL COMBINATIONS

- about 18 months to 2 years

- a transition to the preoperational stage of early childhood.

- Children develop mental representations, symbolic thought, deferred imitation, and can solve simple problems mentally before acting.

- Toddlers can think before acting and use symbols

E.g., pretending a banana is a phone.

Representational ability

- the ability to mentally represent objects and actions in memory, largely through symbols such as words, numbers, and mental pictures

An example of this is a baby playing with a toy smartphone.

Imitation

- 9-24 months

- Babies copy what they see.

- they can copy actions after some time has passed (deferred Imitation)

Object Permanence

- 4-24 months (develops gradually)

- Bables learn that objects still exist even when they cannot see them.

Symbolic Development

- 18-24 months

- Children use one object to represent another.

Categorization

- 18-24 months

- Children begin grouping objects by similarities (e.g., animals, toys, foods).

Causality

- 4-12 months

- Babies learn that their actions can make things happen (cause and effect).

Number

- 18-24 months

- Children begin to understand simple ideas about quantity (e.g., one vs. many).

HABITUATION

- a type of learning in which repeated or continuous exposure to a stimulus reduces attention to that stimulus.

- in newborns, repeatedly presenting a stimulus such as sound or visual pattern and then monitoring responses.

example: if you show a new toy to a 4-month-old baby, they will stare at it for a long time. If you keep showing the exact same toy many times, the baby will look at it for a shorter time and then look away. They are now habituated to the toy.

DISHABITUATION

- If a new sight or sound is presented, the baby's attention is generally captured once again, and the baby will reorient toward the interesting stimulus

e.g. A baby looks at the same teddy bear for several minutes and eventually loses interest. Then, someone shows the baby a bright red ball. The baby immediately looks at the new toy.

- Babies become Interested again when they see a new stimulus after getting used to a familiar one.

- Measures the baby's ability to detect change.

- Uses one familiar stimulus, then introduces a new stimulus.

Purpose: Tests whether babies can recognize something new.

VISUAL PREFERENCE

- The tendency to spend more time looking at one sight rather than another

e.g. If babies given a choice between looking at a curved or straight line spend more time focused on the curved line, the implication is that babies like curved lines more than straight lines.

- Babies naturally look longer at stimulus because they find it mean interesting or attractive.

- Measures what babies prefer to look at.

- Presents two stimuli at the same time and observes which one the baby looks at longer.

Purpose: Identifies what babies can distinguish or what they find more interesting.

VISUAL RECOGNITION MEMORY

- Ability to distinguish a familiar visual stimulus from an unfamiliar one when shown both at the same time.

e.g. A baby sees their mother leave the room. When the mother returns, the baby smiles immediately because they recognize her face.

Lev Vygotsky

- Language develops through social interaction

- Children learn best through interacting with other people, such as parents, teachers, siblings, and peers. - He believed that culture also shapes how children think, solve problems, and learn.

- Children develop cognitive skills when they receive guidance from a More Knowledgeable Other (MKO) through social interaction, especially within the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) using scaffolding.

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

- includes tasks that are just beyond the child's current ability but can be accomplished with guidance or support (scaffolding).

Recognition

- is the ability to identify something that has been seen before, such as a familiar face, object, or picture.

- Infants develop recognition memory before recall memory, which is why they can recognize their parents' faces long before they can remember information without seeing it.

Recall

means remembering information without seeing it first.

Assimilation

- "This new thing fits what I already know."

Fast-mapping strategy

- Learns a new word quickly

EX: Learns "elephant" after hearing it once

Overextension

- Uses a word too narrowly

- "Use one word for too many things"

- Occurs when a child uses one word to refer to too many things because they share similar characteristics.

EX: Calls only their own cup "cup"

Telegraphic speech

- Uses short, simple phrases

EX: "Daddy go work."

Noam Chomsky

Language is innate (LAD)

Jean Piaget

Language develops with cognitive development

Albert Bandura

Language is learned through observation and imitation

Prelinguistic Speech

- utterance of sounds that are not words.

- This includes crying, cooing, babbling, and accidental and deliberate imitation of sounds without understanding their meaning.

Code Switching

- Changing from one language to another.

- Often depends on the situation or the person being spoken to.

Example: Speaking English to a teacher, then switching to Filipino when talking to a friend.

Code Mixing

- Mixing words or phrases from two languages in one sentence.

- Happens naturally because the speaker is comfortable using both languages.

Example: "Let's kain first before we study."

Rovee-Collier's study

- as young as 3 months, a child can remember specific objects within 10 minutes.

Infantile Amnesia

as the child grows, if there are things they cannot remember due to not matured hippocampus yet, this is called as?

behaviorist approach

- studies the basic mechanics of learning.

- are concerned with how behavior changes in response to experience.

psychometric approach

Measures quantitative differences in abilities that make up intelligence by using tests that indicate or predict these abilities!

Piagetian approach

- looks at changes, or stages, in the quality of cognitive functioning.

- It is concerned with how the mind structures its activities and adapts to the environment.

information-processing approach

- focuses on perception, learning, memory, and problem solving.

- It aims to discover how children process information from the time they encounter it until they use it.

cognitive neuroscience

approach seeks to identify what brain structures are involved in specific aspects of cognition.

social-contextual approach

examines the effects of environmental aspects of the learning process, particularly the role of parents and other caregivers.

classical conditioning

Learning based on associating a stimulus that does not ordinarily elicit a response with another stimulus that does elicit the response.

personality

- the relatively consistent blend of emotions, temperament, thought, and behavior that makes each person unique.

Emotions

- Such as fear, are subjective reactions to experience that are associated with physiological and behavioral changes.

Social smiling

- Around 6-8 weeks of age, the smile typically first appear

- when newborn infants gaze and smile at their parents, develops in the 2nd month of life

Anticipatory smiling

- In which infants smile at an object and then gaze at an adult while continuing to smile—rises sharply between 8 and 10 months and seems to be among the first types of communication in which the infant refers to an object or experience.

Self-conscious emotions

- such as embarrassment, empathy, and envy, arise only after children have developed self-awareness

self-awareness

- Realization that one's existence and functioning are separate from those of other people and things.

self-evaluative emotions

- Emotions, such as pride, shame, and guilt, that depend on both self-awareness and knowledge of socially accepted standards of behavior.

empathy

- Ability to put oneself in another person's place and feel what the other person feels.

mirror neurons

- Neurons that fire when a person does something or observes someone else doing the same thing.

temperament

- Characteristic disposition, or style of approaching and reacting to situations.

easy children

- Children with a generally happy temperament, regular biological rhythms, and a readiness to accept new experiences.

difficult children

- Children with irritable temperament, irregular biological rhythms, and intense emotional responses.

slow-to-warm-up children

- Children whose temperament is generally mild but who are hesitant about accepting new experiences.

goodness of fit

- Appropriateness of environmental demands and constraints to a child's temperament

gender

- Significance of being male or female.

Gender typing

- Socialization process by which children, at an early age, learn appropriate gender roles.

Trust Vs. Mistrust

- Erik Erikson's first stage in psychosocial development, in which infants have a sense of reliability to people and objects

- According to Erikson, the first psychosocial crisis that infants must resolve is?

- During the first year of life, infants develop this when caregivers consistently provide love and comfort and meet their basic needs

attachment

- A reciprocal, enduring tie between two people, especially between an infant and a caregiver.

- Each of whom contributes to the quality of the relationship

Strange Situation

- Laboratory technique used to study infant attachment.

secure attachment

- Pattern in which an infant is quickly and effectively able to obtain comfort from an attachment figure in the face of distress.

avoidant attachment

- Pattern in which an infant rarely cries when separated from the primary caregiver and avoids contact on their return.

ambivalent (resistant) attachment

- Pattern in which an infant becomes anxious before the primary caregiver leaves, is extremely upset during their absence, and both seeks and resists contact on their return.

EXAMPLE: when a baby cries intensely upon a parent's departure, but upon their return, frantically seeks comfort while simultaneously pushing the parent away, arching their back, or angrily slapping away offered toys

disorganized-disoriented attachment

- Pattern in which an infant, after separation from the primary caregiver, shows contradictory, repetitious, or misdirected behaviors on their return.

EXAMPLE: when an upset baby falls and crawls toward their returning parent for comfort, they suddenly freeze, slap the floor, or turn around and back away in a dazed, confused state.

stranger anxiety

- Wariness of strange people and places, shown by some infants during the second half of the 1st year.

separation anxiety

- Distress shown by someone, typically an infant, when a familiar caregiver leaves.

mutual regulation

- Process by which infant and caregiver communicate emotional states to each other and respond appropriately.

interactional synchrony

-The synchronized coordination of behavior and affect between a caregiver and an infant.

still-face paradigm

- Experimental methodology in which a parent first interacts typically with their child, then keeps their face still and expressionless, and then ends with a return to typical behavior;

- used to demonstrate interactional synchrony

social referencing

- Understanding an ambiguous situation by seeking another person's perception of it.

self-concept

- Sense of self; descriptive and evaluative mental picture of one's abilities and traits.

socialization

- Development of habits, skills, values, and motives shared by responsible, productive members of a society

internalization

- During socialization, the process by which children accept societal standards of conduct as their own.

self-regulation

- A child's independent control of behavior to conform to understood social expectations

conscience

- Internal standards of behavior, which usually control one's conduct and produce emotional discomfort when violated.

situational compliance

- Kochanska's term for obedience of a parent's orders only in the presence of signs of ongoing parental control.

committed compliance

- Kochanska's term for wholehearted obedience of a parent's orders without reminders or lapses.

receptive cooperation

- Kochanska's term for eager willingness to cooperate harmoniously with a parent in daily interactions, including routines, chores, hygiene, and play.

physical abuse

- Action taken deliberately to endanger another person, involving potential bodily injury.

neglect

- Failure to meet a dependent's basic needs.

sexual abuse

- Physically or psychologically harmful sexual activity or any sexual activity involving a child and an older person.

emotional maltreatment

- Rejection, terrorization, isolation, exploitation, degradation, ridicule, or failure to provide emotional support, love, and affection; or other action or inaction that may cause behavioral, cognitive, emotional, or mental disorders.

sex tracking

- The recruitment, harboring, transportation, provision, or obtaining of a person for the purposes of a commercial sex act.

Hope

- Which basic virtue develops when an infant successfully resolves the trust vs. mistrust crisis?

- Erikson believed that successfully resolving the first psychosocial crisis develops the virtue of?

night terror

- Abrupt awakening from a deep sleep in a state of agitation, generally occurs in young children.

- Abrupt awakening from a deep sleep

- The child may scream, cry, or thrash around but usually has no memory of it afterward.

- “I looked terrified, but I wasn't really awake.”

Example: A child suddenly sits up, screams, looks terrified, and pushes their parents away—but the next morning says, “I don't remember anything.” memory of it afterward.

sleepwalking

- Walking around and sometimes performing other functions while asleep.

example: A child walks around the house while still asleep and does not remember doing it the next morning.

sleeptalking

Talking while asleep.

nightmare

- “I had a scary dream.”

- The child wakes up and can usually tell you what happened.

- A bad dream, sometimes brought on by staying up too late, eating a heavy meal close to bedtime, or overexcitement

- A frightening dream that usually causes the child to wake up.

Example: “Mommy, I dreamed that a monster was chasing me!”

enuresis

- Repeated urination in clothing or in bed.

- involuntary urination during sleep

- Preschool children normally recognize the feeling of a full bladder while asleep and awaken to empty it.

gross motor skills

- Physical skills that involve the large muscles.

- Uses large muscles: arms, legs, whole body

- Requires balance, strength, and movement

EXAMPLE: jumping, running, climbing, throwing a ball

fine motor skills

- Physical skills that involve the small muscles and eye-hand coordination.

- Uses small muscles: Hands, fingers, wrists

- Requires precision and coordination

EXAMPLE: cutting with scissors, drawing, buttoning clothes, writing

systems of action

- Increasingly complex combinations of motor skills, which permit a wider or more precise range of movement and more control of the environment.

handedness

Preference for using a particular hand.

dental caries

Tooth decay, cavities.

preoperational stage

In Piaget's theory, the second major stage of cognitive development, in which symbolic thought expands but children cannot yet use logic effectively.

Use of symbols

Understanding of identities

understanding of cause and effect

ability to classify

understanding of number

empathy

theory of mind

6 Cognitive Advances during Early Childhood

Centration: inability to decenter

Irreversibility

Focus on states rather than transformations

Transductive reasoning

Egocentrism

Animism

Inability to distinguish appearance from reality

Immature Aspects of Preoperational Thought (According to Piaget)

Centration

- inability to decenter

- Children focus on one aspect of a situation and neglect others.

- The child focuses only on one part & ignores the rest

Irreversibility

- Children fail to understand that some operations or actions can be reversed, restoring the original situation.

- The child cannot mentally reverse an action