families and social policy

What is the Functionalist view of family diversity?

Functionalists argue the nuclear family is the most suitable family type for modern industrial society because it performs essential functions that maintain social stability and value consensus.

How does Parsons explain the relationship between the nuclear family and industrial society?

Parsons argues there is a "functional fit" between the nuclear family and industrial society. The nuclear family supports geographical mobility (workers moving for jobs) and social mobility (children achieving status through education).

What are Parsons' two irreducible functions of the family?

Primary socialisation of children by teaching society's norms and values, and stabilisation of adult personalities by providing emotional support and relieving workplace stress.

Why does Parsons believe the nuclear family is best suited to industrial society?

It is small and mobile, making it easier for workers to relocate for employment, while socialising children into achievement-based values required in industrial societies.

Evaluate the Functionalist view of family diversity.

Functionalists explain how the family contributes to social stability, but they assume the nuclear family is the ideal family type and often treat alternative family forms as dysfunctional, ignoring diversity and inequality.

What is the New Right view of the family?

The New Right argue there is only one normal family: a heterosexual married couple with a male breadwinner, female homemaker and dependent children. They believe this family provides the best environment for children's socialisation.

Why do the New Right see the traditional nuclear family as natural?

They argue biological differences make men better suited to paid work and women better suited to caring roles, making the traditional nuclear family the most stable arrangement.

How does the New Right explain the rise in family diversity?

They argue increasing lone-parent families, cohabitation and divorce weaken social stability, increase welfare dependency and contribute to educational failure and crime.

How do New Right theorists view lone-parent families?

They argue lone-parent families often lack discipline, boys grow up without male role models, welfare dependency increases, and children experience poorer outcomes.

What does Harry Benson (2006) argue about cohabitation and marriage?

Benson studied over 15,000 babies and found family breakdown after three years was around 20% among cohabiting couples compared with 6% among married couples. He argues marriage creates stronger commitment because it involves a deliberate public promise.

Evaluate Harry Benson's findings on cohabitation.

Benson provides evidence that marriage is associated with greater stability, but critics argue poverty and economic insecurity may explain relationship breakdown rather than marital status itself.

How does Ann Oakley criticise the New Right?

Oakley argues gender roles are socially constructed rather than biological. Cross-cultural evidence shows men and women perform different roles in different societies, meaning the New Right reinforce patriarchy.

How does Carol Smart (2011) criticise the New Right?

Smart argues poverty and wider social inequalities may cause relationship breakdown rather than the absence of marriage. Cohabitation is not necessarily unstable.

Evaluate the overall New Right perspective on family diversity.

The New Right highlight concerns about family stability and child outcomes but are criticised for idealising the traditional nuclear family, ignoring diversity, reinforcing patriarchy and overlooking structural causes of family change.

What is Robert Chester's Neo-Conventional Family thesis?

Chester argues family diversity is exaggerated because most people still aspire to the nuclear family. The main change is from the conventional male breadwinner family to the neo-conventional dual-earner family.

What is the neo-conventional family?

A dual-earner nuclear family in which both partners are employed rather than following the traditional male breadwinner/female homemaker model.

Why does Chester argue family diversity is exaggerated?

Most people still marry, most children are raised by two natural parents, cohabitation is usually temporary before marriage, and many divorcees remarry.

How does Chester explain statistics showing increasing family diversity?

He argues they are only a snapshot of individuals at one point in the life course and do not reflect people's long-term movement into conventional family arrangements.

Evaluate Chester's Neo-Conventional Family theory.

Chester recognises changes in gender roles while arguing the nuclear family remains dominant, but critics argue he underestimates the growing importance of same-sex families, lone-parent families and chosen families.

What is the Rapoports' view of family diversity?

Rhona and Robert Rapoport argue family diversity is a defining feature of modern Britain and reject the idea that one family type is normal.

What is organisational diversity?

Differences in how family roles are organised, such as joint conjugal roles or segregated conjugal roles.

What is cultural diversity according to the Rapoports?

Different ethnic and religious groups have different family structures, for example Asian extended families and African-Caribbean female-headed lone-parent families.

What is social class diversity?

Differences in income and class affect family structures, lifestyles and parenting practices.

What is life-stage diversity?

Families change over the life course, including young couples, families with children, retired couples and elderly people living alone.

What is generational diversity?

Different generations have different attitudes towards marriage, divorce and cohabitation.

Evaluate the Rapoports' theory of family diversity.

The Rapoports explain the wide variety of family forms found in Britain, but critics argue diversity may not be as extensive as they claim because many people still experience nuclear family life.

How do Postmodernists explain family diversity?

Postmodernists argue society has become fragmented and individuals now have greater choice over identities and relationships, meaning there is no longer one dominant family form.

What are the main characteristics of postmodern society according to Postmodernists?

Diversity, fragmentation, rapid social change, media influence, uncertainty and individual choice replace traditional predictable lifestyles.

Why do Postmodernists believe family diversity has increased?

Rapid social change and greater individual freedom allow people to "pick and mix" lifestyles and create a variety of family forms.

What does David Cheal argue about modern families?

Cheal argues families have become fragmented into many different forms rather than following one dominant structure.

What did Judith Stacey study?

Stacey used life history interviews to study families in Silicon Valley and examine changing family structures.

What did Judith Stacey conclude about family diversity?

Women were the main agents of family change through education, employment, divorce and remarriage, leading to increasingly diverse family forms.

What are divorce-extended families?

Families created through divorce rather than marriage, including ex-partners, new partners and former in-laws who continue to have important relationships.

Evaluate Stacey's research.

Stacey provides strong evidence that family structures are increasingly shaped by personal choice rather than tradition, although her findings are based on one region and may not represent all societies.

What is the Individualisation Thesis?

Giddens and Beck argue traditional social structures have weakened, allowing individuals greater freedom to construct their own lives and relationships.

What does 'disembedded' mean in Beck's theory?

Individuals are freed from traditional roles and expectations, allowing greater personal choice in family life.

What is Beck's 'do-it-yourself biography'?

People no longer follow traditional life paths but instead actively construct their own biographies through individual choices.

What is Giddens' Pure Relationship?

A relationship based on love, equality and mutual satisfaction rather than duty, religion or economic necessity. It continues only while both partners benefit.

How does the Pure Relationship explain family diversity?

Because relationships depend on satisfaction rather than obligation, people are more willing to divorce, cohabit, remarry or form alternative family structures.

Why does Giddens see same-sex couples as pioneers?

He argues same-sex relationships are less constrained by traditional gender roles and therefore demonstrate more equal and negotiated relationships.

How does Jeffrey Weeks support Giddens?

Weeks found many gay men and lesbians create chosen families and friendship networks that function as kinship relationships.

What is Beck's Negotiated Family?

A family where partners negotiate roles and responsibilities rather than following fixed traditional gender roles.

How does Beck explain instability in modern families?

Greater equality and freedom require constant negotiation, increasing uncertainty and the likelihood of relationship breakdown.

Evaluate the Individualisation Thesis.

It explains rising diversity, cohabitation and changing relationships but is criticised for exaggerating personal choice while underestimating structural inequalities such as class, gender and ethnicity.

How does the Personal Life Perspective criticise Individualisation?

Smart and May argue people do not make completely free choices because relationships remain shaped by obligations, social structures and previous relationships.

Why do Smart and May argue choice is unequal?

Opportunities are influenced by class, gender and ethnicity, meaning not everyone can freely choose the family life they want.

What is Carol Smart's Connectedness Thesis?

People live within "webs of connectedness" where family choices are shaped by ongoing relationships, obligations and responsibilities.

How does Smart use divorce to criticise Individualisation?

After divorce, parents remain connected through children, showing relationships cannot simply be ended because responsibilities continue.

Evaluate the Personal Life Perspective.

It recognises the importance of personal meanings, family diversity and ongoing relationships, but critics argue it underestimates the influence of wider social structures and can be too broad.

How would the Rapoports argue that family diversity represents progress?

Diversity provides greater choice and reflects changing social needs rather than one ideal family form.

How would Postmodernists evaluate increasing family diversity?

They argue diversity reflects freedom, individual choice and the decline of restrictive traditional norms.

How would Stacey evaluate increasing family diversity?

Family diversity reflects women's increasing opportunities and active role in reshaping family life.

How would Giddens and Beck argue family diversity represents progress?

Greater individual freedom allows relationships based on equality, satisfaction and negotiation rather than obligation.

How would the New Right argue family diversity damages society?

The decline of the traditional nuclear family weakens socialisation, increases welfare dependency and contributes to social problems.

How would Parsons defend the traditional nuclear family?

It performs essential functions that maintain social order, including primary socialisation and stabilisation of adult personalities.

How does Harry Benson support the New Right?

His research suggests marriage is associated with greater relationship stability than cohabitation.

How would Smart and May evaluate debates about family diversity?

Family diversity has increased, but choices remain constrained by class, gender, ethnicity and ongoing social relationships rather than complete individual freedom.

Compare Functionalist and Postmodernist views of family diversity.

Functionalists argue the nuclear family remains the ideal structure because it performs essential social functions, whereas Postmodernists argue no single family type is dominant and diversity reflects greater freedom and choice.

Compare Chester and the Rapoports on family diversity.

Chester argues diversity is exaggerated because most people still follow the nuclear family life course, whereas the Rapoports argue diversity is now a defining feature of modern family life across organisational, cultural, class, life-stage and generational dimensions.

Compare the Individualisation Thesis with the Personal Life Perspective.

Giddens and Beck argue people increasingly choose relationships freely as traditional structures weaken, whereas Smart and May argue choices remain shaped by connectedness, obligations and inequalities based on class, gender and ethnicity.