kidneys get rid of it as urine
bodily function to get rid of excess bicarbonate
ketone
secreted into bloodstream to be used for cellular energy when blood glucose levels are low
secondary structure
the local spatial arrangement of a polypeptide's backbone who’s structure is reinforced by Hydrogen bonds
passive transport
small substances such as ions/molecules move between extracellular and intercellular space following natural gradient
facilitated diffusion
passive movement of molecules across concentration gradient aided by transmembrane proteins
channel mediated, carrier mediated
two types of facilitation diffusion
osmosis
movement of water through aquaporin channel across lipid bilayer
endocytosis
a type of active transport that moves large molecules, often macromolecules from extracellular into the intercellular space
active transport
movement of molecules through protein pumps, requires energy
glycolipid
lipid with sugar group attached which help with cell membrane stability and identification
pancreas’s exocrine function
secretes digestive enzymes into the duodenum
E stored + E used for work + E lost(heat)
components of Energy balance
epithelial tissue
Tissue type that covers exposed surfaces, lines internal passages/chambers, produces granular secretions
connective tissue
tissue type that provides structural support, energy storage, fills/binds other tissues/organs
muscle tissue
tissue type that contracts/relaxes to produce active movement
neural tissue
tissue type that carries information and conducts electrical pulses
atomic/molecular, cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, organism
body structural organization from smallest to largest
tissue
perform relatively simple tasks, distributed throughout the body, composed of cells
organs
perform specialized specific tasks, have specific loci
ingestion
voluntary mechanical taking in and breaking down of food
propulsion
movement of food along digestive tract
swallowing
voluntary propulsion
peristalsis
involuntary contraction/relaxation of muscle tissue during digestion
villi
small slender projections on the epithelial surface of the GI tract which increase SA
Plicae
folds of the small intestine increasing SA
mechanical digestion
physical breaking down of food into smaller chunks increasing SA:vol ratio
chemical digestion
enzymes break chemical bonds of food
Liver
organ whose main digestive function is to produce bile but also serves other important metabolic and regulatory roles
Pancreas
only organ able to produce enzymes that can break down all digestible macromolecules
digestion
breaking down large food molecules that can be later absorbed
galbladder
stores bile and concentrates it through the removal of water when digestion isn’t occurring
bile
acts as a support to mechanically separate lipids to aid lipase
lipase
lipid enzyme
nuclease
nucleic acid enzyme
protase
protein enzyme
amylase
carbohydrate enzyme
chyme
composed of gastric juices and partially digested food
duodenum
first part of small intestine where bile from gallbladder, digestive enzymes from pancreas, and stomach acid mix
pancreatic ducts
route digestive enzymes travel to get to duodenum
bile duct
route bile takes to get to small intestine
emulsification
mechanical breaking down of lipids in order to aid chemical breakdown done by pancreatic enzymes
segmentation
process of small intestine moving food back and fourth to mix with digestive juices
absorbtion
products of digestion are transported from GI tract via active/passive transport to lymph/blood mucosal cells
catabolism
metabolic step of chemical breakdown of complex molecules into smaller ones
anabolism
metabolic step of synthesis of complex molecules
urea, CO2, water
metabolic chemical waste
Basal Metabolic Rate
measurement of the energy it takes to keep you and your tissues alive
(BMR) organs
tissue that composes less than 6% of body but makes up 58% of BMR
potential energy
energy stored in the bonds that can be used to do work
heat (kinetic energy)
metabolic non chemical waste
monomers
small molecules that can be produced by catabolism
ATP synthase
enzyme that adds inorganic phosphate to ADP
bonds between atoms
determine the behavior of a molecule
monosaccharides disaccharides
two categories that make up simple sugars
polysaccharides
categorization of complex sugars
starches, cellulose(fiber), glycogen
these are polysaccharides
glucose, fructose, galactose
these are monosaccharides
lactose, maltose, sucrose
these are disaccharides
carbohydrates
polar molecules whose structure consists of C rings and hydroxyl groups
starch
complex carbohydrate with few branches in its structure
cellulose(fiber)
complex carbohydrate which “links” together in chains of Carbon
glycogen
complex carbohydrate made by humans with a highly branched structure
free glucose(monomer)
preferred molecular form of carbohydrates that are distributed/used by the body
glycogen(polymer)
preferred molecular form of carbohydrates that are used for storage
fatty acids
lipid monomer
triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids
lipid polymers
carboxyl group with long CH chains
fat/lipid structural characteristics
polar glycerol sugar backbone with three fatty acids
triglyceride structural characteristics
unsaturated fats
fatty acids have C=C double binds creating a “kink”
saturated fats
3 straight fatty acids that make up non polar end of triglyceride
cholesterol
created by body from triglycerides, never used as fuel and serves mainly structural and functional purposes
sex hormones, bile salts
two things made of cholesterol
amphipathic
trait in which one part of a molecule is polar and another is non polar
ketoacidosis
excess accumulation of ketones in blood due to reduced/ complete lack of insulin which overwhelms bodies buffer system and causes acidosis
amino acids
monomer of proteins
glycogenesis
process in which glucose molecules are removed from blood by liver and combined into glycogen
glycogenolysis
break down of stored glycogen into free glucose molecules by liver to be used as energy by body
glucogenesis
livers ability to make glucose from non carbohydrate substances such as lipids and proteins
stimulus
first step: change that provokes a response
receptor
second step: detects a change in body through cell signaling
input
third step: information is sent along pathway to control center
output
fourth step: info is sent to the effector
effector
apart of step four and five of homeostasis, molecules that bind to receptor and trigger a response
response
fifth step: effector reduces effect of stimulus and returns body back to normal
negative feedback
bodily response whose feedback loop is the opposite of the stimuli in order to return body back to homeostasis
positive feedback
bodily response that once an extreme level is reached, is unable to reverse it and instead accelerates change in same direction
dynamic equilibrium
state of variable fluctuation around a normal range
pancreas's endocrine function
secrete hormone signaling molecules which help regulate blood sugar levels
glucagon
hormone produced by pancreas alpha cells
insulin
hormone produced by pancreas beta cells
hyperglycemia
BCL homeostasis interrupted by increasing blood glucose levels
hypoglycemia
BCL homeostasis interrupted by decreasing blood glucose levels
beta cells
act as receptors in the pancreas and secrete insulin
alpha cells
act as receptors in the pancreas and secrete glucagon
desmosomes
anchoring junctions that prevent cells who perform mechanical functions from coming apart, connect via button like thickenings of adjacent plasma membranes via protein filaments
fluid mosaic model
visually depicts the structure of the cell membrane and its various functions
glycoprotein
membrane proteins with a sugar group attached which serve as identifiers, adhesion, receptors, and identity
nucleus, cytoplasm, cell membrane
3 generalized parts of animal cell
nuclear envelope, chromatin, nucleolus
3 generalized regions of nucleus
chromatin
condensed chromosomes wound around histone proteins