PSYCH109 - LEARNING 35 KEY POINTS

What is learning?

A relatively lasting change in behaviour that occurs as a result of experience. Learning changes how an organism responds to stimuli and consequences in its environment.

What is the basic model of learning?

Stimulus → Behaviour → Consequence. A stimulus can set the occasion for a behaviour, and the consequence that follows can affect how likely that behaviour is to occur in the future.

What is reinforcement?

A consequence that increases the future probability of a behaviour.

What is punishment?

A consequence that decreases the future probability of a behaviour.

What is the difference between positive and negative reinforcement?

Positive reinforcement involves adding/presenting an appetitive event after a behaviour. Negative reinforcementinvolves removing an aversive event after a behaviour. Both increase behaviour.

What is the difference between positive and negative punishment?

Positive punishment involves adding an aversive event after a behaviour. Negative punishment involves removing an appetitive event. Both decrease behaviour.

What does “positive” and “negative” mean in reinforcement and punishment?

Positive = something is added/presented. Negative = something is removed/withdrawn. These terms do not mean good/bad.

What is an appetitive event?

An event that is generally desirable or rewarding to the organism, such as food, money, or access to something enjoyable.

What is a contingency?

A relationship in which the consequence depends on the occurrence of a particular behaviour. Learning is influenced by what happens following a behaviour.

What is a schedule of reinforcement?

A rule specifying when or under what conditions reinforcement is delivered following a behaviour.

What is the difference between ratio and interval schedules?

Ratio schedules depend on the number of responses made. Interval schedules depend on the amount of time that has passed.

What is the difference between fixed and variable schedules?

Fixed schedules involve a predictable requirement or time period. Variable schedules involve an unpredictable requirement or time period that varies around an average.

What is a fixed-ratio (FR) schedule?

Reinforcement is delivered after a fixed number of responses. Example: a reward after every 10 responses. FR schedules typically produce a high response rate with a pause after reinforcement.

What is a variable-ratio (VR) schedule?

Reinforcement is delivered after a variable, unpredictable number of responses. Example: gambling. VR schedules typically produce high, steady response rates and strong resistance to extinction.

What is a fixed-interval (FI) schedule?

Reinforcement becomes available after a fixed amount of time, provided the required response occurs. Responding typically increases as the end of the interval approaches, producing a scalloped pattern.

What is a variable-interval (VI) schedule?

Reinforcement becomes available after a variable and unpredictable amount of time. VI schedules typically produce steady responding.

What is a cumulative recorder used for?

It provides a visual record of response rate over time, allowing researchers to see patterns of responding produced by different reinforcement schedules.

What is stimulus control?

Behaviour is under stimulus control when its likelihood depends on the presence or absence of particular environmental stimuli.

What are an S+, generalisation, and discrimination?

An S+ is a stimulus signalling that reinforcement is available for a particular response. Generalisation is responding similarly to stimuli that resemble the S+. Discrimination is responding differently to stimuli that differ from the S+.

What is choice behaviour and what does concurrent VI research show?

Choice behaviour involves selecting between two or more simultaneously available responses, each associated with different reinforcement schedules. Research using concurrent VI schedules shows that the distribution of behaviour is strongly related to the relative rates of reinforcement available from the alternatives.

What is the role of consequences in learning?

Consequences affect the future probability of behaviour. If a consequence reinforces a behaviour, that behaviour becomes more likely; if it punishes the behaviour, it becomes less likely.

What is the difference between an appetitive and aversive event?

An appetitive event is generally desirable or rewarding, whereas an aversive event is generally unpleasant or something an organism wants to avoid.

How can the same event function differently depending on the behaviour and context?

Whether an event is reinforcement or punishment depends on its effect on future behaviour, not simply on whether the event is objectively pleasant or unpleasant.

What pattern of responding is typically produced by a fixed-ratio schedule?

High rates of responding followed by a post-reinforcement pause. The pause occurs because the organism has just received reinforcement and the next reinforcement requires another fixed number of responses.

What pattern of responding is typically produced by a variable-ratio schedule?

High and relatively steady responding, because reinforcement can occur after an unpredictable number of responses.

What pattern of responding is typically produced by a fixed-interval schedule?

A scalloped pattern: responding is relatively low immediately after reinforcement and increases as the fixed interval approaches its end.

What pattern of responding is typically produced by a variable-interval schedule?

Steady, moderate responding, because the availability of reinforcement is unpredictable and cannot be timed precisely.

What is the difference between a schedule based on response rate and one based on time?

Ratio schedules require a certain number of responses, whereas interval schedules require a certain amount of time to pass before reinforcement becomes available.

What does an S+ signal?

An S+ signals that a particular behaviour is likely to be reinforced in its presence.

What is stimulus generalisation?

The tendency for a learned response to occur to stimuli that resemble the stimulus associated with reinforcement.

What is stimulus discrimination?

The ability to respond differently to different stimuli, particularly when one stimulus signals reinforcement and another does not.

What did Guttman and Kalish (1956) demonstrate?

Their research demonstrated stimulus generalisation: after pigeons were trained to respond to a particular wavelength of light, responding also occurred to similar wavelengths, with responding generally decreasing as the stimuli became less similar.

What is a concurrent schedule of reinforcement?

A situation where two or more reinforcement schedules are available simultaneously, allowing the organism to choose between different responses or alternatives.

What did the Auckland choice-behaviour research examine?

It examined how organisms distribute their choices between simultaneously available alternatives when those alternatives provide reinforcement at different rates.

What does the 27:9:3:1 choice example demonstrate?

When four alternatives provide reinforcement at rates of 27, 9, 3, and 1, choice behaviour tends to be distributed according to the relative reinforcement rates, showing that organisms are sensitive to how much reinforcement each option provides.