IB HISTORY - Focus 13

Monroe Doctrine

It established a policy to limit European expansion and stated that the U.S. had the right to intervene to keep European powers out of the Western hemisphere.

Significance: The Monroe Doctrine was originally created to stop Britain and other Euroepan powers from colonizing in the Western half of the hemisphere. This gave the U.S. an advantage because it allowed them to colonize in and around the Western hemisphere, which led to its growth as a global superpower.

Good Neighbor Policy

A foreign policy of the United States made by President Franklin D. Roosevelt; it was aimed towards Latin America, enforcing the ideas of non-intervention and non-interference in the affairs of Latin America. It also reinforced the idea that the United States would be a "good neighbor" and engage in reciprocal exchanges with Latin American countries

Significance: The Roosevelt administration expected that the policy would create many new economic opportunities, such as trade agreements and reinserting the influence of United States in Latin America, but the Latin American governments did not believe so. The policy terminated the U.S. marines' occupation in Nicaragua (1933) and its occupation in Haiti (1934). It annulled the Platt Amendment by Treaty of Relations with Cuba (1934) and the negotiation of compensation of Mexico's nationalization of foreign-owned oil businesses (1938). Ultimately, it had a major effect on Latin America for various economic and political reasons.

Platt Amendment

A treaty between the U.S. and Cuba (approved on May 22, 1903) that attempted to protect Cuba's independence from foreign intervention. It permitted extensive U.S. involvement in Cuban international and domestic affairs for the enforcement of Cuban independence

Significance: One of the most significant things about the Platt Amendment was that it was one of the many examples of U.S. imperialistic movements and enforcement of foreign policies of the time period. In addition, after the Spanish-American War, people had mixed feelings about Cuba in the U.S. Many wanted to annex the country, but many also wanted to make it independent. The Platt Amendment gave the U.S. Guantanamo Bay as a naval base and also allowed the U.S. to intervene in Cuba's economic and political affairs. The reason behind proposing the amendment was so that it could ensure the government would remain friendly towards the U.S. and that American companies (especially the economy) wouldn't be hurt by sudden changes that could occur.

Spanish Civil War (1936-1939)

An armed conflict between the Republicans and Nationalists; it broke out when the Spanish army in Morocco (when a few of the most influential generals of the Spanish Army), led by (nationalist) General Francisco Franco, rose up against the democratically elected Republican government, which was ruled by Manuel Azaña

Significance: The war caused over 500,000 deaths. It also witnessed the very first deliberate aerial bombing of a city. The nationalist forces were not successful in stopping republican movements. The rebels failed to take any major cities, with the exception of Seville, which provided a landing point for Franco's African troops, and the primarily conservative and Catholic areas of Old Castile and León, which fell quickly. The Republican government ended up controlling almost all of the east coast and central area around Madrid, as well as Asturias, Cantabria and part of the Basque Country in the north.

Nationalized

To take an industry or an installation that had been in private or foreign hands and to bring it under government ownership and operation

Significance: Some Eastern nations have nationalized oil industries built in their countries by Europeans or Americans. The Suez Canal was built by English and French, but nationalized by Egypt in 1956. Nationalization can be considered fair or unfair depending on circumstances. In addition, it also goes against the principles of laissez-faire because it involves government involvement in the "industries." This means that it is not a free market (capitalism), but it shows how the government intervention in the economy was needed during that time period for the purpose of keeping the economy from collapsing again.

Neutrality Acts and Amendments

The acts were passed by the United States Congress in the 1930's, in response to the growing turmoil in Europe and Asia that eventually led to World War II

Significance: The ideas regarding isolationism and non-interventionism in the U.S. following its (costly) involvement in WWI influenced the Neutrality Acts because the U.S. did not want to become involved with foreign conflicts. It resulted in raising tariffs in order to influence American exports and buying American products, but that only caused other nations to increase tariffs on American goods as well. Ultimately, there was a negative outcome and the U.S. ended up getting involved in the war anyway.

Cash and Carry

A system of wholesale trading whereby goods are paid for in full at the time of purchase and taken away by the purchaser

Significance: This idea was influenced by the fact that people would constantly be borrowing money they would not be able to repay. For example, during the Great Depression, American citizens would buy things using "credit," believing they would eventually be able to pay off the loans. However, this resulted in bankruptcy, not only for the people, but the banks and government as well. Therefore, the cash and carry system was created because it helped ensure that people would not be losing their money. It would also prevent bankruptcy.

Sino-Japanese War

The first war (August 1, 1894 -April 17, 1895) was fought between Qing Dynasty (China) and Meiji Japan, primarily over control of Korea

Significance: The war was significant because it demonstrated the failure of the Qing dynasty's attempts to modernize and industrialize. It also showed that the Chinese army was weak, but more importantly, it showed that the Japanese military was NOT weak, and that it actually did have the power to become an "imperial" nation.

Munich Agreement (Conference)

A settlement permitting Nazi Germany's annexation of portions of Czechoslovakia along the country's borders mainly inhabited by German speakers. The agreement was negotiated at a conference held in Munich, Germany, among the major powers of Europe, without the presence of Czechoslovakia.

Significance: Because the state of Czechoslovakia was not invited to the conference, it considered itself to have been betrayed by the United Kingdom and France, so Czechs and Slovaks call the Munich Agreement the Munich Diktat (Munich Betrayal). The phrase "Munich Betrayal" is also used because the military alliance Czechoslovakia had with France and Britain proved useless. The event was also significant because it helped Germany's imperialistic and nationalistic ambitions, which was one of the main causes of World War II.

Danzig Crisis

The conflict between Germany and Poland, which was supported by Britain and France, over the Danzig territory preceding the outbreak of World War II

Significance: Beginning in October 1938, Hitler demanded that the Danzig region of Poland get handed over to Germany. The port area had been under Polish administration since the Potsdam agreement. Poland refused to cede Danzig, and in March of 1939, negotiations began between Germany and Poland. On March 30, 1939, both France and Great Britain pledged to defend Poland in the event of a German attack. This event is significant because it was one of the major causes of World War II and it caused "allies" to be formed, which carried on into World War II.

Belligerent

A nation or person engaged in war or conflict, as recognized by international law

Significance: This is significant because it is a formal way to tell who is participating in a war. For example, if the U.S. declares war against Germany, the U.S. and Germany would both be belligerent. This helps other countries understand who is at war, and due to the alliances many nations form, it will call other people to war as well.

Munich Crisis

The Munich Crisis was one of the many waypoints along the road to World War II. This Crisis began when Nazi Germany demanded the annexation of the Sudetenland, the Czech territory bordering Germany

Significance: The most significant part of the Munich Crisis is that it resulted in the Munich Agreement, which was a settlement agreement permitting Nazi Germany's annexation of portions of Czechoslovakia along the country's borders mainly inhabited by German speakers. This is one of the leading causes for Germany's contribution to World War II.

Open-Door Policy

It stated that all nations would share equal trading privileges in China

Significance: American imperialists were looking into the far East for expansion of trade and influence. When American (and other) troops invaded and attacked the Chinese Boxers, the victorious foreign governments forced the Chinese to sign a favorable trade agreement and pay indemnities to make srue there weren't any future damages. This resulted in the United States benefit from trade and raw materials from China, which ultimately helped support them in becoming a global superpower. Over time, however, the U.S. has becoming increasingly more dependent on China, which still leaves China as being a huge benefit to us today.

Lend-Lease

The Lend-Lease policy, formally titled An Act to Further Promote the Defense of the United States, was a program in which the U.S. supplied Great Britain, France, the Republic of China, the USSR (later), and other allied nations with materials between 1941 and August 1945. It was signed into law on March 11, 1941, a year and a half after the outbreak of World War II in Europe in September 1939 (signed into law nine months before the U.S. entered the war in December 1941)

Significance: A total of $50.1 billion (equivalent to $656 billion today) worth of supplies were shipped. In all, $31.4 billion went to Britain, $11.3 billion to the Soviet Union, $3.2 billion to France, $1.6 billion to China, and the remaining $2.6 billion to the other Allies. The terms of the agreement provided that the materiel was to be used until time for their return or destruction. However, not much equipment was returned. This resulted in the U.S. experiencing major economic problems.

Sanctions

Actions taken by countries against others for political reasons, either unilaterally or multilaterally

Example: The Treaty on the Final Settlement With Respect to Germany - negotiated in 1990 between the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic and the Four Powers which occupied Germany at the end of World War II in Europe: France, the USSR, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and the U.S. In the treaty the four powers renounced all rights they held in Germany, allowing a united Germany to become fully sovereign the following year

Conscription (Draft)

Compulsory enlistment for state service, typically into the armed forces (a military draft)

Significance: In the absence or lack of soldiers, it may be necessary for the government to issue a draft. This is significant because it helps defend the national security of our nation; however, it is controversial because it is against many peoples' wills. Many people believe it is not right/unjust to draft people into the military, but it is necessary (not necessarily necessary, but more needed). During (and shortly after) World War II, there were not enough people to fight in the war, so the government had issued a draft to help the nation.

Atlantic Charter

A joint declaration released by U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill on August 14, 1941 following a meeting of the two heads of state in Newfoundland. It provided a broad statement of U.S. and British visions for the postwar world

Significance: This document is significant because it is considered one of the first key steps toward the establishment of the United Nations in 1945. The U.S. and Britain agreed not to seek territorial gains from the war, and they opposed territorial changes made against the wishes of the people involved. They also agreed to support the restoration of self-government to the nations who had lost it during the war. In addition, it stated that people should have the right to choose their own form of government. Other principles gave access to all nations to raw materials "needed for economic prosperity" and an easing of trade restrictions (tariffs). It was also significant because it called for international cooperation to secure improved living and working conditions for all; freedom of the seas; and for all countries to abandon the use of force. It established and set forth many principles used by the United Nations today.

Indochina

A region of Southeast Asia that was a colony of France

Significance: During the late 1930's, Japan edged closer to alliances with the fascist dictators in Europe. The US government became alarmed as it watched Japan's military approach into Indochina. Roosevelt purposely showed how displeased he was by pressuring Japan economically in the hope that it would end Japanese activities. The Japanese military held so much power that it dictated foreign policy and its key aim was to destroy any chance of the USA interfering with imperial and economic expansion. This is greatly significant because it increased tensions between Japan and the US and led to future conflict between the two nations

1911 Trade Treaty

A treaty to improve trade and commerce between the USA and Japan

Significance: The 1911 Trade Treaty expired on January 26, 1940. Roosevelt initially informed the Japanese government that trade would rest on a day-to-day basis. There was a public opinion poll directly after this and 81% of Americans approved of Roosevelt's actions. However, Roosevelt did not begin an arms embargo or even a trade boycott of Japanese goods. The significance of the 1911 Trade Treaty ending was that it led to economic downfall due to the lack of trade in Japan and it ultimately increased conflict and bad relations between the US and Japan.

Three Power Pact (Tripartite Pact)

This pact (similar to an alliance), between Germany, Italy, and Japan, was signed on September 27, 1940; it is also called the Tripartite Pact

Significance: Japan became a member of the Three Power Pact in September of 1940 with Germany and Italy, two totalitarian and fascist countries. Each country promised to help the others in the event of war with the USA. This is significant because it reveals that the relations between Japan and the USA were increasingly worsening. In addition, it also reveals Japan's motives. They are forming an alliance with two totalitarian countries and trying to fight the USA, a democratic country, which is trying to fight the totalitarianism. Ultimately, this foreshadowed the conflict that took place the following year: the bombing of Pearl Harbor.

Unconditional Surrender

Surrender without conditions, in which no guarantees are given to the country that is surrendering

Significance: Japan became a country under siege because it had lost control of the seas and the air. However, despite defeats that had taken place on land, Japan repeatedly refused to the unconditional surrender that the USA demanded. This is significant because it shows how the US really was more powerful than Japan, but Japan refused to accept it. Additionally, it also shows how Japan attempted to imperialize during World War III and spread its dictatorial ways. The US was trying its best to get Japan to surrender, but they refused, leading to worse conflict.

Orthodox

A view in which historians agree that what had traditionally happened was the right way to go

Significance: The orthodox viewpoint during the dropping of the atomic bomb was significant in various ways. Many historians and other people had believed that Truman's dropping of the atomic bomb was important in order to end World War II and that World War II wouldn't have ended without the dropping of the atomic bomb. In addition, some believed that it saved the lives of many American soldiers and was abruptly able to end the war. This view is significant because it reveals some of the viewpoints people had about the dropping of the atomic bomb.

Revisionist

A view in which historians reevaluate historical events to try and find a better (revised) thing that could have occurred

Significance: During World War II, President Truman dropped the atomic bomb in Japan, which ultimately ended the war. The orthodox viewpoint insists that it is the only thing that could've been done to abruptly put an end to the war. The revisionist viewpoint, however, claims that doing such a thing is inhumane and that other methods could've been used. For example, Admiral Leahy saw the use of the bomb as no different to using poisonous gas or bacteriological weapons. In addition, many people were concerned that introducing such dangerous warfare would influence other countries and nations to use them back on us, posing a major threat to our national security.

"Sink on Sight" Policy

A policy adopted by Germany that caused any ship that was seen to be immediately attacked without warning, whether the country the ship belonged to was at war with Germany or not

Significance: When World War II broke out in 1939, the Germans adopted the "sink on sight" policy. As a result, even though Roosevelt was not yet at war with Germany, he introduced an identical policy in September of 1941. Roosevelt's policy amended the Neutrality Act. This was significant because it shows that the isolationist stance that the US claimed to have was leaning more toward a war attitude. The aim of the Germans was to blockade the UK and starve the country into submission. Convoys of food and other war materials were sent from Canada and the USA on a regular basis to ensure that the British population did not starve, ultimately showing that the US did not truly remain neutral. It also reveals the significant amount of power and influence that Germany had during the time of World War II.

Amphibious Warfare

Military operations launched from the sea against an enemy shore

Significance: Roosevelt thought that Churchill was interested in protecting British interests in the Middle East, but he eventually accepted his plan for North Africa, Operation Torch. Operation Torch was headed by US General Eisenhower and began in November of 1942. Army troops were trained in amphibious warfare. There were no dedicated landing craft and so they modified existing small vessels. Amphibious warfare was significant because it shows how various countries had wanted to go to war, but how they refused to fight on land. They would attack the shore, destroying sea ports and important docking ships that would be necessary for the other nation's navy or trade. This destroyed other countries' economies and increased tensions and conflicts between various countries.

Second Front

Stalin's wish for the USA and the UK to open another theatre of war in France against the Germans in order to take the pressure off the Soviet forces on the Eastern Front

Significance: In January of 1943, Roosevelt and Churchill met in Casablanca. They invited Stalin, but he declined to attend because of the German siege of Stalingrad. Here, they decided that all the necessary conditions required for the invasion of Europe would be ready for action in 1944. In December 1943, Roosevelt, Stalin, and Churchill met together for the first time at Tehran (Iran). The "Big Three" agreed that the Second Front would open in May or June of 1944. The USSR agreed to declare war on Japan as soon as Germany was defeated. This was significant because it shows how the UK, US, and USSR became allies against Japan in order to stop its imperialistic spread and stop the spread of fascism (which is ironic because Stalin ended up being an even worse dictator in the latter years, during the Cold War).

D-Day (Operation Overload)

The selected day for the start of Operation Overlord on June 6, 1944

Significance: About six months before D-Day, more than 2600 German fighter pilots were killed and this was an attrition rate that Germany could not sustain. There were specific bombing raids on the German aircraft industry, and by May, the Luftwaffe was virtually powerless. On D-Day, it flew hardly any sorties to challenge the invasion. As D-Day approached, the air campaign began to focus on preventing the Germans' ability to move reserves. This crippled French and Belgian railways. Bridges demolished in north-western France. The raids were also synchronized with increased attacks by the French resistance. However, an unfortunate result of the Allied bombing was the death of about 10,000 French civilians. This is significant because it reveals the allied effort of the US to defend France from Nazi Germany and expel/eliminate German domination in Europe.

Battle of the Bulge

A major German offensive campaign launched through the densely forested Ardennes region of Wallonia in Belgium, France, and Luxembourg on the western front toward the end of World War II in Europe

Significance: In December of 1944, Hitler made his final attempt to defeat the Allies in the west. He wanted to split the Allied forces and prevent them from using the port of Antwerp, Belgium. The allies, however, were still experiencing supply problems. If successful, Hitler hoped that the UK and the USA would make a separate peace, independent of the USSR. The US contribution to the defeat of Hitler was decisive because, without its supplies, the UK and the USSR would have found it impossible to continue the war. The USA was fortunate not to have its mainland suffer attack, so there was never any disruption to its manufacturing output. This was significant because this was the point at which Roosevelt dubbed the USA as the "arsenal of democracy," meaning that the USA would go through anything to defend democracy.

Buffer State

A small and usually neutral state between two rival powers

Significance: The significance of a buffer state is to prevent the outbreak of regional conflict. For example, Stalin sought to create a buffer state but Churchill could not agree. Stalin pointed out that his country had been attacked by Germany in 1914 and 1941. He wanted Poland's borders to move to the west to provide security for his western borders. He desired a government in Poland that would be friendly to the USSR, as the then exiled Polish government in London was the opposite. This was important because it offered the USSR a "buffer" from an attack, invasion, or war. Additionally, a buffer state sought to protect the USSR, which was the primary reason for them wanting Poland to be a buffer state.

Zone of Occupation

An area of a defeated country occupied by the victor's armed forces

Significance: During the war, an area of Germany was occupied by the Soviet Union from 1945 to the end of the war. On October 7, 1949, The German Democratic Republic (East Germany) was established in the Soviet Occupation Zone. The significance of occupational zones shows how the victor or nation that is occupying has the ability to control and exert influence on the surrounding regions. In this case, the USSR was able to manage Germany to some extent and exert influence on the regions around their zone of occupation.

Tehran Conference

A meeting between U.S. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, and Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin in Tehran, Iran, between November 28 and December 1, 1943

Significance: The purpose of the Tehran conference was to plan the final strategy for the war against Nazi Germany and its allies. The discussion was primarily centered on the opening of a second front in Western Europe (D-Day). At the same time, the conference discussed relations with Turkey and Iran, operations in Yugoslavia and against Japan, and the post-war settlement. Another aspect was that the three countries were to recognize Iran's independence. Additionally, Stalin wanted a larger stake - a "buffer zone" of states between the USSR and central Europe. The significance of the Tehran Conference was that it discussed the outlines of a proposed new world organization to be called the United Nations Organization, pretty much establishing a foundation for the UN.

Yalta Conference

A meeting of British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, Soviet dictator, Joseph Stalin, and President Franklin D. Roosevelt early in February 1945 as World War II was winding down

Significance: The conference dealt primarily with the future of Germany, but also looked at the Pacific War. Roosevelt wanted to settle unresolved issues related to the United Nations with Stalin and to ensure that the USSR would enter the war against Japan. There was also the broader US aim of establishing democracy in Europe. Roosevelt was aware that it would be difficult to persuade Stalin to remove his forces from occupied areas when fighting ceased. Ultimately, the Yalta Conference was significant because it established that the USSR would enter the war against Japan three months after Germany's surrender, Germany would be divided into four zones, and that an allied control council would be set up to administer national policies for Germany as a whole, and it would consider issues such as reparations and war crimes.

Potsdam Conference

Soviet leader Joseph Stalin, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill (replaced on July 26 by Prime Minister Clement Attlee), and U.S. President Harry Truman met in Potsdam, Germany, from July 17, 1945 to August 2, 1945, to negotiate terms for the end of World War II

Significance: There were many significant aspects of the Potsdam Conference. First, it established that President Truman greatly disliked Communism. The USSR continued to occupy eastern European countries. One majorly important factor was that it became known that President Truman knew the atomic bomb would work. There were also many decisions made. The conference confirmed the decision at Yalta to divide Germany and Berlin. Germany was to be demilitarized and have a democracy re-established. The Nazi Party was to be banned. Reparations were to be paid mainly to the USSR. It also agreed on the policy about the defeat of Japan. Although there was a significant amount of information decided upon, there were many disagreements as well. The amount of reparations was not decided upon. Free elections were not being held in the USSR. Finally, Stalin was keen to establish a buffer zone in Eastern Europe.

Dieppe Raid

A Second World War allied attack on the German-occupied port of Dieppe. The raid took place on the northern coast of France on August 19 of 1942

Significance: Objectives included seizing and holding a major port for a short period, which was significance to prove that it was possible and to gather intelligence. Upon retreat, the Allies also wanted to destroy coastal defenses, port structures and all strategic buildings. The raid had the added objectives of boosting morale and demonstrating the firm commitment of the United Kingdom to open a western front in Europe. The assault was unsuccessful for various reasons, however. Ultimately, the Dieppe Raid was significant because the Canadian army did not suffer a loss of morale, but rather it sought to prove itself in future actions. This caused the Canadian army to build up until it became the third largest navy in the world.

Internment Camps

Places where people were imprisoned or confined without trial

Significance: After the bombing of Pearl Harbor in 1941, the Japanese Americans were placed in internment camps in various places around the United States (primarily the west coast). This is significant because it shows the racist acts committed by the US and shows how the Japanese-Americans (and Japanese-Canadians) were treated. The internment camps were similar to the concentration camps used by Hitler earlier in World War II.

Xenophobia

Intense or irrational dislike or fear of people from other countries