everything

What are external factors?

External factors, are outside of school which differentiate between upper and working class.

Language Speech Codes(external)

Bernstein

-       The restricted code

o   Used by the working class. This has limited vocab, unfinished grammatically simple sentences. Slang.

-       The elaborated code

o   Used by the middle class. Exponential Vocabulary, finished grammatically complex sentences. No slang.

The elaborated code is used in school, exams, and textbooks. Because of early

socialisation (when you are raised at home)

-       The middle class have been told to speak and raised talking in the elaborated code. They are fluent users. Whilst they answer the questions they feel as if they are at home.

-       For the working class, as they are in a household that speaks the restricted code, the children in school would have to learn how to speak in the elaborated code, otherwise, they won’t be able to answer questions and complete exams.

 

Evaluation: Very pessimistic, very stereotypical, working class people can speak in the elaborated code. Being of working class doesn’t automatically mean that they speak differently.

Parents Education(external)

Douglas and Feinstein

-       Working class parents aren’t educated. So they have less involvement in their child’s academic journey, They are unable assist with homework. Working class families are not educated so they do not place any value on it. This would mean their child will look up to them, so they would not care themselves.

-       In contrast, the upper-class family is educated, they know the curriculum, they know about schools, unis. They are able to help. The Upper class family would care about education, so they as their children look up to them.

Evaluation: Blackstone and Mortimore, it is not the fact that working class parents do  not care it is that they do not have time to help them as they are constantly working, this means they are too tired, and they work to provide for their family

The working-class subculture-(external)

Sugarman

He believes that the working class and the upper class are raised differently, their families have different values.

-       Lower-class people are socialised into demotivating beliefs, which result in them not caring about their education,

-       Upper-class people are socialised into motivating beliefs which stem from their parents will result in them caring about their education.

Immediate Gratification-(external)

Seeking pleasure now instead of sacrificing to get rewards in the future, by contrast, middle-class values emphasise deferred gratification, making sacrifices now for greater rewards later.

Present time orientation-

Seeking the present as more important that the future and so not having long term goals.

Fatalism-(external)

Belief in fate, nothing to do to change status, contrasts between the middle class values, can change position through own efforts.

Collectivism-(external)

Valuing being part of a group, more than succeeding as an individual. Group loyalties should not hold back middle class values.

Evaluation, the myth of cultural deprivation, Keddie(external)

The myth of cultural deprivation does not matter about the students and how they are deprived, it tries to blame everything on the student, it is about the teacher and how they should teach the student to speak in elaborated code. So it does not matter where the student comes from it is about what they learn.

Material Deprivation-(external)

Lack of financial resources and money eg unable to provide the right books for school

The working class are more materially deprived

Housing-(external)

-       Working would have a tighter crowded houses

-       The upper class people big houses

Overcrowding leads to less space or even no space to study, there can also be noise, for the upper class however, they can have a separate room to study in, with silence.

If a house is very overcrowded, accidents, which would lead to attendance drop which means they would miss on lessons which would mean they would do worse in exams.

Diet and Health-(external)

Howard

-       The upper class have 3-5 nutritional meals, which means that they would be less likely to be sick for being hungry.

-       The lower-class ration and share their food which would mean that they would be malnourished and be sick for not receiving the food a growing body requires.

Financial support and costs of education- (external)

Flaherty (she says that 20% of the kids that are eligible for free school meals are scared to own it as they will get bullied in school.)

-       Higher-class families are able to provide for their children the right equipment, tutors, they pay for their child’s transport and provide transport.

-       The lower-class contrasts this as they are not able to provide as much for their children, the right equipment’s, tutors, paying for their child’s transport. Places a burden. As they can't afford this, they have to live off hand me downs and unfashionable equipment, so they get bullied and do not want to go to school. `

Lableling and Self Fulfilling Prophecy-(internal)

This is in stages:

1.    A teacher will labelling (attach meaning or definition) to a student.

a.    A teacher can label a lower-class student to be “dumb”

b.    A teacher can label a upper-class student to be ‘smart’

2.    A teacher will interact with a student depending on how the teacher has labelled them out to be

a.    For the lower class they will avoid

b.    For the upper class they will spend more time

3.    Self Fulfilling Prophecy, the student becomes what the teacher has prophesised them to be.

 

[BECKER] They went to a high school in Chicago and found out teachers judge pupils depending on how closely they fitted an image of the idol pupil.

 

Idol pupil is subjective. (<- this would be the evaluation)

 

Dunne and Gazley argue that in English Secondary schools, if the working class child underachieves they would normalise it and not care however if it was the upper class child they would see it as something wrong and add extra support(not normalised).

Streaming-(internal)

-       Seperating Children into different groups according to their ability (sets)

-       Teachers label working class students as not intelligent, they place them into lower streams and they have low expectations of them, so they tend to abandon their class/stream with the mindset they will fail anyways, they are known as hopeless cases (they get abandoned)

-       There are two types of upper class students

o   The upper class students that are the most intelligent, top of the table are also abandoned because the teachers know that they are going to be getting A’s B’s regardless

o   The Upper class students that have potential are given more attention by teachers, because the teachers recognise their potential, they receive average as grade C’s

[Douglas says that children that is placed in a low stream at age 8, they had a decline in their IQ score at age 11. And the children that are placed in a higher stream at 8 have an increase in their IQ score at age 11]

 

Gillborn and Youdell – Working class students and black students are sterotyped and put into lower streams.

 

Evaluation – Deterministic, Not all lower class students that are placed at the low streams will fail school, because it is determined by how much effort the student puts in. For Gilborn and Youdell, it depends on the area as there may be a predominantly lower class area or black area which put the question how can they be stereotyped.

Pupil Subcultures-(internal)

Pupil Subcultures-

Lacey

Lacey believes that subcultures form through

-       Differentiation, when teachers separate students based on ability (like streaming) (formed two different groups)

-       Polarisation, the students react to the stream that they are put in. (forms two different groups)

The pro-school subculture are full of pupils that are put in high streams, and they are given the most attention, praised more, they form bonds with teachers, and so this results in them being committed to school, and they are committed to school and obedient to the rules.

In contrast there is the anti school subculture, are full of pupils that are put in low streams, they are given no attention, abandoned, so they see themselves as faliures. To receive attention they act out in school, they would talk back to teachers, smoke, bunk, fight etc, not obedient to rules.

 

Evaluation – I disagree because being lower class does not mean they would join an anti school subculture, but it is the friends and family that play the biggest factor.

Pupils Class Identities-(internal)

Archer

Habitus – The school’s culture so their preference for clothing, speech, accent, lifestyle

The middle class fit in with the schools habitus, because they share the same values with the school, so they have symbolic capital.

In contrast, the working class pupils do not fit in with the schools capital therefore they fit in with symbolic violence.

For example, they don’t have the right clothing, appearance and speech, so they are viewed as inferior. The working class students believe in order to be successful they would have to change the way they speak and the way they present themselves. During education/school they feel like they are changing themselves.

 

Specific to clothing, lower class
They feel like they have to create their self-worth, this would increase wearing branded clothing such as Nike.

Educational policy

how and why schools operate, picking and selecting students. Getting students to come to the school.

Tripartite system

a selection process. Children should get their status through achievement and not ascribed. Children should work hard to get to where they want to get to. The 11-plus was created. This is for children being sifted and shifted into either a grammar school, however, if they fail or they don’t sit the test, they would be put into a normal state school. This would mean the people at the grammar would have more educational achievement therefore they would be able to get into the non-manual jobs. However, for the people that do not go to the grammar school they are expected to do the manual jobs. This reproduces class inequality, by the     that middle class has a greater advantage to lower class, as middle class can spend enough money on their children for private tutor, whereas a lower-class parent may not be able to put the money in therefore it reproduces class inequality. It is legitimised due to the ideological state apparatus, this would mean that they think they deserve to be there. (link to Althusser)

Functionalists argue that it promotes social integration (coming together) bringing children of different social classes into one school. (one word meritocratic)

Comprehensive state school is when children go to school in their area, this tackles the class divide, don’t have to sit an exam, any kid can go.

Evaluation - Ford found out that there was little social mixing between middle class and lower class which means this system was not effective. As the rich would stay with the rich and the poor would stay with the poor. It was trying to get rid of the segregation but there still is the segregation.

Marxists focuses in the internal factors, as the school is not meritocratic. As they continue to stream and label the children.

Marketisation:

Introducing market forces of consumer choice + competition between suppliers in areas run by the state – such as education.

Marketisation= [reducing direct state control over education] [increasing competition, between parental choice of school] – education market.

Marketisation – ventral theme of the government education policy- 1988 education reform act (ERA) – conservative gov?

It increases parental choice and increases competition with surrounding schools. Publishing of league tables, Bursaries, Scholarships, Specialist schools.

Parentocracy:

David says parentocracy, the idea that the parents are now the concern. More money through funding government.

League tables and cream skimming

Ball

Silk shifting and cream skimming – Schools have a policy of posting the league tables (examination results) The schools that achieve good results are more in demand, because parents are attracted to those school who have the higher results, so the good schools more scope to pick out students, they can pick high achieving middle class pupils which is call cream skimming, and the good schools are able to not take in lower achieving students, so that they won’t damage the schools league table position, this is called silt shifting.

Funding Formula:

Schools are allocated funds by a formula based on how many pupils they attract. Popular schools get more funds and can afford, better qualified teachers, better equipment this means that the school becomes more attractive for the parents which means they want their children to study there. With the unpopular schools, the schools are smaller and they do not have as much funding as the popular school. For this the schools have inadequate equipment, fewer teachers, this means when the parents see this they would not want their children to come to this school.

Parental Choice:

Gewirtz

Increased parental choice advantages middle class parents and disadvantages lower class parents as they lack cultural capital. She identifies 3 main types of parents

1.      Privileged skilled choosers are middle class parents, they have the right cultural capital, they are well educated, and understand the value of education, they know how the school admission system works, they know which schools are good or bad, and they also have connections, they also have economic capital (how much money they got) they can move their children around the education system to get the best of it. If a good school is far away they can pay for the child’s transportation, they can also move their child to a nearer house.

2.      Disconnected local choosers, they lack both economic and cultural capital (lacking knowledge and money), they are not educated therefore they do not understand the value of education, they do not know how the schools admission system works, they do not know which schools are good or bad, they do not have any connections, they don’t have economic capital, they cannot pay for transport as it is too expensive or even go to the extent of moving house, therefore they look for the schools nearby instead of the schools that are far.

3.      Semi skilled choosers, they are still working class parents, however they are more ambitious for their children, so they lack cultural capital they still found it difficult to navigate to they have to rely on other peoples opinions about schools.

This reproduces class inequality as the two different schools, this is by the middle class parents choosing the good schools and the working class choosing the bad schools, so the children would be in two different schools, proving class inequality.

Myth of parentocracy:

It makes it seem like parents have a choice, realistically not all parents have a choice, some have more information and knowledge about schools than other parents, so parental choice created inequalities.

Privatisation:

Schools used to be a public thing, now it is a private thing. So it is the transfer between the public asset, which is the school, to private companies. Private companies in the ESI (education services industry) are increasing activities in education, more supply teachers, more work-based learning, more career advice and Ofsted inspection services. Private companies.

The cola-isation of schools:

The private sector (companies) penetrate education indirectly, this can be through vending machines on school premises, the development of brand loyalty, through displays of logos and sponsorships.

Example: Radnor as a company. Schools are targeted by these private companies because schools have a good reputation and are associated with good will. They will confer legitimacy, with anything associated with them. So they would promote things that are not good or healthy, so they are very particular.

Education as a commodity:

Explaining what privatisation is, by the sociologist Ball. Privatisation is the key factor of shaping educational policy. Schools becoming a private company rather than a public asset institution. Policies move schools from public to private. States and governments are losing control over the schools.

Marxists say that they are being handed to private capitalists, so they make it seem like the privatisation is a good thing. However, it makes it seem like they are driving up the standards of the school, but it is js private profits.

Intellectual and Linguistic skills-Cultural

Bereiter and Englemann

Black low-income families (working class) lack Intellectual and Linguistic skills, so they speak in inadequate and disjointed sentences and it leaves them poorly equipped for school. For example, they may speak in slang. They are unable grasp the language to use in schools, and communicate to teachers.

Evaluation, this is too deterministic, if there is a statement that talks about everyone (every single black or brown student is …. (doesn’t speak properly)) Not every black child doesn’t know how to speak. Gilborn says that Indian pupils do well despite often not having English as their home language.

Attitudes and Values-Cultural

Black children have a lack of motivation, and that is why they fail. Whilst most children are socialised into “ambition, motivation, willingness” it equips them for success in education, however black children are socialised into subculture that instils a live for today attitude. They don’t see education as a long-term goal.

Evaluation, Driver says that this theory ignores the positive effects of ethnicity on achievement, the black Caribbean family raised up girls to be strong independent woman, and they have these role models of these strong women which is why black girls tend to be more successful in education than boys.

Families Structure and Parental Support-Cultural

Moynihan

Black families are headed by a lone single mother, so the children are deprived of adequate care she is unable to inadequately socialise (when they go to school, learn, speak, write) them, as there is no father there is no role model for the children, results in demotivation.

Evaluation, it makes it seem like the black culture is weak, and sensitive. The main reason they fail is because of the racism. Pryce says that Black people are less resistant to racism, more likely to respond and lose focus of the work. However, Asians are more resistant (key word) to racism so they would brush it.

Criticism by Lawrence, He makes is seem like the black culture is weak, and that is the reason they fail, the reason why they fail is the racism in the first place (in its self)

Criticism for Intellectual and Linguistic skills-Attitudes and Values-Families Structure and Parental Support - Cultural

Keddie says that cultural deprivation is a victim blaming explanation, she argues that ethnic minority children are cultural different not culturally deprived. She says the schools are not doing anything tackle this. She describes the school as ethnocentric.

Material Deprivation

Racism in Wider Society

Poverty is a great product of material deprivation

Housing-

Rex

Ethnic minorities are more likely to be forced in a sub-standard accommodation compared to white people of the same class.

Housing affects educational achievement
This would be through crowding, in a substandard accommodation, more collisions could occur, this would take time off school (absence) and altercate educational achievement.

Employment-

Wood

White applications are more likely to get accepted than ethnic minority applications. There is discrimination by white parents are more likely to receive a higher paying job of the same class.

If a family is richer they can afford tutition, good meals, good clothes.

They can also have textbooks, they can have internet plans, they can have newer laptops to study on.

They can also have better nutrition, hot meals three times a day.

Marketisation and Segregation - internal

Gilborn

Marketisation gives schools more scope to select pupils, it allows negative stereotypes to influence their decisions. They favour white pupils and they tend to avoid picking ethnic minority pupils. This leaves the ethnic minorities to go to unpopular schools. This is an ethnically stratified system.

Evaluation, in this day and age schools tend to be diverse, schools are even favouring ethnic minorities because it makes the school look attractive.

Ethnocentric Curriculum-

Ethnocentric describes and attitude or priority that gives to one culture. In schools the ethnocentric curriculum is focused on the culture on white students.

Troyna and Williams

The languages we are taught in school, British, European, they do not teach ethnic minority languages such as Asian or Black languages.

Ball

He says that they ignore the history of Black and Asian people and they focus British Culture.

Impact of Feminism (external)

From the 1960s, the view of woman was a traditional stereotype, of being a mother and a housewife, in a nuclear family. Now, as society passed these perceptions of a woman’s role has changed and women are presented as stronger and more independent.

McRobbie, she looked at girls’ magazines, and back in the day the magazines showed women getting married, and today’s society magazines show women being emotionally intelligent, bold, brave, this has raised woman’s expectation and self-esteem. So, when girls see this, they realise they can be more than a housewife.

Evolution – This is a strong and reasonable point, people like Adele.

Changes in the family (external)

There have been major changes in family, things such as cohabitation, divorce and lone parent families have had a significant increase. If there is an increase of woman lone parent families, they have to take the bread winner role, they have to work more to care for their child. They essentially take the men’s role. They have to take more care in education, so they can land a good job as of which they can take care of their families. This encourages girls and look for themselves.

Evaluation-This is evident in the society, we can see that there is an increase in divorce.

Changes in woman’s employment (external)

Important changes occurred. There are more job opportunities for women, meaning there’s more career choices for women, raising ambition. 

Equal Pay Act 1970, makes it illegal to pay women less. Women and men have to pay the same. The pay gap between men and woman have halved. These changes have encouraged girls, to do paid work than being a housewife.

Positive Role models in school: (internal) (gender factors)

Increase in female teachers, headteachers, head of years etc. This means that when a girl looks up to the teachers, that are female, they think “I can do this too.” The teachers are role models. Girls do better in school because it boosts their self-esteem, motivates them getting into the senior positions.

Criticism: Despite the fact that there is an increase in female teachers, there is significantly more male teachers, meaning there is more male role models for boys, so this is inadequate. Radical Feminist believe this.

GCSE and Coursework: (internal) (gender factors)

With the introduction of coursework, it resulted in a gender difference as girls perform better than boys in coursework.

Mitsos and Browne, girls are more successful in coursework because girls are better organised, spend more time on their work, take more care in the way it is presented, are better at meeting deadlines, and are able to bring the right equipment to lessons.

This can be due to gender role socialisation.

Evaluation: This is not always true because boys can also be organised, spend more time on their work, care how it is presented. Boys are also able to take the right equipment to lessons.

Criticism: Elwood, Coursework is unlikely to be the cause of gender gap, because exams have much more influence than coursework and final grades. (course work isn’t the explanation)

Boys and Literacy (external) (boys and achievement)

The gender gap is the result of boy’s poorer literacy and language skills, one reasons for this is parents take less time reading to their sons, and more time reading to their daughters. In addition, boys are usually encouraged to take on sports such as football and basketball, which don’t develop their language skills. In contrast, girls tend to have a bedroom culture, which is staying in talking in with friends. In school, this would mean that as girls have good, developed literacy skills in comparison to boys they are able to understand better than boys. This would lead to boys underachieving.

Globalisation and the decline of traditional men’s jobs: (external) (boys and achievement)

Mitsos and Browne, Since the 1980s there has been a significant decline in traditional men’s jobs, such as mining and ship building. But there has been a decline in this because of automation, as technology has evolved to do these labour-intensive tasks. Furthermore, these jobs are taken overseas. This has led boys to think less hope in getting a proper job, therefore they lose motivation and self-esteem, so they give up trying to get qualifications, which means they underachieve.

Criticism: Not all boys look for jobs like this, and in today’s society boys don’t have aspirations of having traditional men’s jobs. These traditional jobs, are labour intensive and don’t require any qualifications, so how can this be the cause of boys not achieving.

Shortage of male primary school teachers:

Having less male primary school teachers mean that boys don’t have any male role models to look up to, and as primary schools are predominantly female teachers, boys may feel as if the teacher does not understand them. It can also turn boys mischievous, as they may be lacking male discipline. Only 14% of primary school teachers are male.

Gender role socialisation: (character) (Gender Subject Choice)

This is the process of learning the behaviour expected form males and females. From early ages girls and boys are dressed differently and given different toys, school plays an important part. Teachers encourage boys to be tough, and expect girls to be helpful. Girls and boys are expected to have different tastes in reading. Boys read Non-fiction, which aid them later when they study stem subjects, in contrast girls read fiction, stories about people, places, this will aid them later in creative subjects like English or art.

Gender subject images: (Gender Subject Choice)

There are certain subjects that boys do, such as science and maths. And other subjects the girls do like English and art. Science and Computer studies are seen to be boy subjects because the teachers are more likely to be men. The examples that are used in text books are more likely to be men, involvement in working with machines is part of the male gender domain. English teachers are more likely to be female.

Gender Identity and Peer Pressure: (Gender Subject Choice)

Subject choice can be influenced by peer pressure, this can be boys cannot do subjects like art and health and social care because it is a girly subject. And for girls, girls will also get stigmatised if they do STEM subjects, which may put them off doing subjects they want to be doing.

Verbal Abuse:

Connell

Boys use name calling to put girls down if they behave and dress another way. So they call girls slags if they are sexually available, this is a way to maintain male power, from their friends. This forms gender norms and identities.

Male Gaze:

Mac an Ghaill

Male pupils and teachers look girls up and down seeing them as sexual objects and judgements about their appearance. This is a form of surveillance, and patrol girls over to gain power. Another way to prove masculinity to their friends, usually combined telling stories of sexual conquests.

Boys who do not show this type of masculinity are labelled gay.

Male peer groups:

Anti-school subcultures are labelling boys who want to do well in school gay (upper, middle, working), and they also are dismissive of working class boys who worked hard and wanted to have middle class carers as “dickheads” This hypes them up giving them more masculinity.

Policing idenity

Working class girls want to gain popularity so they become hyper hetero sexual, so they came to school looking “sexy” and if they don’t they might risk getting called a tramp. So there is tension between girls showing loyalty to the female peer group, and competing for boys in a competitive nature.

What is Marxism

Society is capatalistic
Society exploits the poor
rich stay rich poor stay poor
eg - unis are getting more expesnive

What is feminism

Society is Patriarchal
Discrimination to women, favouring men
Negative View - looks at women being put down over men

Functionalism

Positive View
Society is required
Family is Important
One community succeeds together

Primary Socialism

Process of learning social normas and cultural expectations during childhood

Secondary Socialism

Process of which and indiviudal learns the basic norms and values and behaviours that are epected of them outside family

What does Durkheim believe in? (Functionalism)

Believes in social solidarity, schools teaches the sames norms and values

What does Parsons believe? (Functionalism)

“focal socialising agency“ - the bridge between family + wider society
School = meritocratic (equal and fair) Given equal opportunity
Children are judged by particularistic standards (rules and values that apply only to the particular child, for example when they are at home, the child's status is ascribed instead of achieved) However in school and wider society judge the universal characteristics.

What is David and Moore: Role Allocation (Functionalism)

School essentially sifts and shifts people into the best job for them (allocation) Achieving certain marks on subjects will take you to your destination. Education plays a key part in this process, providing grounds for ability.

Evaluations for Davis and Moore + Parsons (Functionalism)

Davis and Moore  

• Role allocation 

• Feminism would argue that it is not equal, because men could get the job over women 

Parsons 

• Believes in meritocratic, equality = fairness 

• Not the case, you don’t start at the same place because the upper class have an advantage over the working class, both culturally and economically 

Social Solidarity

Value Consensus

Marxism

Education prepares people for the world of work. They believe it is a bad thing. 

What do Bowles and Gintis believe in? (Marxism)

“Correspondence Principle” 

School and work are very similar  

1. Hierarchy (teachers, head teachers) Obey people higher than you 

2. Rewards (in school if you’re good = reward/bad=punishment. Work Good = More Money/Bad=Fired) 

3. Surveillance (watched and monitors at both school and work) 

obidient work force, inequaility as inevitable, school reward students that are submissive, compliant workers.

What do Althusser believe in? (Marxism)

Repressive State Apparatus (RSA) - institutions that control people through force such as the police and courts. If people rebel or challenge authority, RSA steps in.

Ideological State Apparatus (ISA) - control people though ideas and beliefs rather than force.

Althusser believed that schools are part of the ISA as they teach the students to accept inequality as normal. Schools spread the myth of meritocracy, making people believe that success is based on hard work and intelligence, however, in reality, factors like class, gender and race play a role. If a student from a working-class background fails at school and ends up in a low-paying job, they blame themselves rather than questioning the system. This benefits the ruling class because it prevents rebellion—people accept their low status rather than demanding change.

Evaluation – Disagreement with Marxism, people are not robots. There is free will. Troubled kids still make the workforce. 

What do Feminist believe?

School is patriarchal.  

More men head teachers that women headteachers. 

Girls see men at the top. 

Can’t see how they’ll ever surpass men. 

Gender role socialisation – boys wear blue girls wear pink [behaviours and expectations associated with gender] 

Gender subject choice – this would be Maths is a boy subject and English is a girl subject