Week 9 (Aggression)

What is ‘aggressive behavior’?

• Aggression: any behavior intended to harm another person 

  • This harm must be something the target wants to avoid 

  • Aggression actions vary widely the intended harm may be physical, psychological, or social 

1. On the motivations of aggressive behavior: What is ‘instinct theory’?

• Instinct theory – aggression is an innate behavior that seems to emerge even without socialization or training

  • Posits that aggression is innate and biological - a natural drive present in all humans. 

• The aggressive instinct has evolved because it contributed to an animal’s survival

• Aggression enables control over desired resources

What is the ‘frustration-aggression hypothesis’?

• Frustration-aggression hypothesis (drive theory) – asserts that:

  • Every frustration leads to some form of aggression 

  • Every aggressive act is due to some prior frustration.

What is ‘aversive emotional arousal’? 

• Aversive emotional arousal – negative experiences tied to something other than frustration may also cause aggression

  • Accidents, attacks, and insults tend to increase aggression because they all arouse aversive affect — negative emotion that people seek to reduce

How can aggression be learned?

• Imitation (observation) – many people learn their aggressive behaviors by observing others commit aggressive acts and then enacting these same behaviors themselves

• Reinforcement (reward) – individuals learn early on that aggression can be associated with desired outcomes, thereby reinforcing the behavior.

1. According to Albert Bandura et al., how did children’s exposure to aggressive models affect their behavior? 

• Children exposed to aggressive models were more likely to act aggressively than children not exposed to aggressive models

• Children exposed to non-aggressive models were more likely to act less aggressively than their controls

1. In what ways do differences in the characteristics of targets influence aggression?  

• Gender and race

  • Aggressive behavior usually involves two people of the same race or ethnicity

  • The relationship between aggression and gender depends on the type of aggressive behavior

• Attributions for the aggressor’s attack – we withhold retaliation when we perceive that an attack was not intentional

  • We are much more likely to aggress following harm when we attribute that attack to the actor’s intentions rather than to external pressures

• Retaliatory capacity – one of the qualities of the target that one considers in calculating the costs (and benefits) of aggression is the likelihood of retaliation

  • Threat of retaliation may also be responsible for instances of displaced aggression

How do masculine gender norms influence aggressive behavior?

• Although men and women are equally likely to engage in aggressive behavior, men engage in significantly more violent behavior

• Masculine gender norms encourage men to be dominant over women

  • They also associate masculinity with status and toughness, motivating men to use aggression

In what ways do the characteristics of situations make aggression more

Likely?

• Potential rewards

  • Direct material benefits

  • Social approval

  • Attention

• Behavioral models – a model’s aggressive behavior may encourage others to behave in similar ways 

What is the ‘negative norm of reciprocity’?

• Negative norm of reciprocity – requires the retaliation to be proportionate to the provocation - however, errors of estimation and interpretation occur

  • An eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth

According to Nikki Jones, how does the code of the street influence young Women?

• The code of the street – a set of informal rules governing interpersonal public behavior, including violence

  • At the heart of the code is the issue of respect – being granted the deference one deserves

• Gender does not always protect young women from much of the violence young men experience in distressed inner-city environments…young women are exposed to the same forms of violence

  • Thus, it becomes equally important for women to work the code of the street

• Young women also recognize that reputation, respect and retaliation — the ‘3 Rs’ of the code of the street — organize their social world

What is the typical homicide scenario in the United States?

• Typical homicide scenario – includes a male killing a male with a handgun after a heated argument

• The victim and offender are disproportionately young and of minority status

What is ‘sexual aggression’?

• Sexual aggression – a continuum, ranging from the use of bribes through verbal pressure, the intentional use of alcohol or drugs, physical force, and kidnapping, to sexual murder

• Varies from verbal coercion to physical force

• Sexual aggression stems from a variety of factors

• One is a specific set of cultural beliefs and practices that create the conditions encouraging rape

What are the characteristics of a ‘rape-prone society’?

• Rape-prone society – the sexual assault of women by men is allowed or over-looked; the United States is a rape-prone society

• Characteristics:

  • Rates of violent crimes are high

  • Men continue to dominate women politically, economically, and sexually despite measureable shifts toward gender equality

  • There is a continuing separation of men and women in certain spheres (athletics, workplaces)

How does exposure to media violence influence aggressive behavior?

• The amount of time spent consuming entertainment and news through visual media, whether online, on television, or in theaters has increased dramatically

• These media are replete with violence, sex, and aggressive behaviors of all kinds

• Violent television: violence pervades television

  • Experimental research suggests that there is a causal connection between television violence and aggressive behavior