The Making of Modern Britain AS (1951-1979)

Winston Churchill strengths and weaknesses (PM 1951-55)

Strengths - reputation from wartime leadership, international statesman, had able ministers (Eden, Butler, Macmillan)

Weaknesses- uninterested in domestic affairs, age and infirmity

Anthony Eden strengths and weaknesses (PM 1955-57)

Strengths- foreign policy expert, experienced, charming and popular

Weaknesses- inexperienced in domestic affairs, weak leader, sometimes indecisive, ill health

Harold Macmillan strengths and weaknesses (PM 1957-63)

Strengths- reputation from success as housing minister under Churchill, calm, reassuring presence, good on TV, one-nation Conservative, supportive of the post-war consensus

Weaknesses- seen as old fashioned, latterly suffered ill-health

R.A.B Butler strengths and weaknesses

Strengths- one nation Conservative, experienced, responsible for influential policies such as the tripartite education system and review of capital punishment

Weaknesses- divisive and unpopular with some colleagues

Post-war consensus theory

• Mixed economy- both government and private business action important

• Support for NHS and welfare state

• Full employment

• Working in partnership with trade unions and employers

Housing under PWC

House building programme- as housing minister, Macmillan fulfilled the Conservative’s pledge to build 300,000 houses a year by 1953

Education under PWC

Continuation of the tripartite system set up by the Butler Act of 1944

Social reforms under PWC

• Welfare and NHS continue to be funded

• Acceptance of government regulation: Clean Air Act of 1956, Factory Act of 1959

• Some more liberal social reform- Homicide Act of 1957, Wolfenden Report of 1957

Industrial policy under PWC

• Some key industries remain nationalised, only iron and steel were denationalised in 1953

• Conciliatory attitude towards trade unions

Labour divisions- prescription charges

Left wanted there to be none, Right felt it was necessary to introduce charges to respond to financial pressures. Division broke out at the end of the Labour administration, set up the rivalry between Bevan and Gaitskell

Labour divisions- Clause IV

Clause that committed the Labour Party to nationalisation. Right saw nationalisation as only one possible policy, Left wanted it. Trade unions were concerned, Gaitskell tried to amend it at the 1959 conference but backed down in the face of opposition from the Left.

Labour divisions- nuclear weapons

Left supported unilateral disarmament and CND, Right were against. Trad unionists also favoured disarmament and a motion was passed to support this at the 1960 Labour Party conference, but Gaitskell had this reversed in 1961.

Why did the Conservatives lose the 1964 election?

• Social change, e.g. youth, immigration, culture, social mobility. Douglas-Home was unelected and a member of the aristocracy, the government became the target of satire.

• Scandal, e.g the Profumo affair and spy scandals

• Labour unity, deaths of Bevan and Gaitskell, election of Harold Wilson

• Conservative failures, growing economic concerns related to balance of payments, stop-go, inflation, rejection of EEC membership, Macmillan’s leadership

Post-war boom

Productivity increased, full employment achieved in 1955, tax cuts and increases in wages- allowed more consumer spending, investment and growth. Rise in living standards encouraged a growth in birth rates. In reality, Britain’s economic growth wasn’t as strong compared to the rest of Europe.

Downsides to the post-war boom

• Consistent danger that consumer demand would lead to more imports than exports, leading to a balance of payments problem and a run on the pound

• A danger that the economy would grow faster than increases in productivity, leading to inflation as demand outstripped supply

Stop-go economics

When the economy slowed down too much the government encouraged growth by lowering interest rates and allowing wages to rise, and when the economy started to overheat and inflation went up, the government raised interest rates and controlled wage increases

The impact of Suez on economic decisions

• Suez exposed economic weaknesses

• Some wanted to use monetarism- likely to be unpopular as it meant cuts to spending

• Sterling recovered against the US dollar, so the government was able to make big tax cuts in 1959, helping to secure election success, and the economy grew at its fastest rate between 1960 and 1964

Economic instability associated with stop-go

• 1961- government applied to IMF for a loan and was forced to introduce a pay pause

• National Economic Development Council set up in 1961 to plan economic growth

• By 1962 a National Incomes Commission was established to manage wages and prices

• 1963- failure to be accepted into the EEC

• Public expenditure cut, e.g. branch lines and saltations closed

• By the time of the general election in 1964, there was a deficit of £800 million

Rising living standards

• higher wages- men’s average weekly wage went up from £8.30 in 1951 to £15.35 in 1961

• Access to credit through hire purchase enabled more people to access new consumer goods such as fridges, cars, and new furniture

• Housing improvements- slums were cleared and replaced with new towns

• State subsidies to farming kept the price of food low and food rationing came to an end in 1954

What impact did people buying more household goods have?

Household gadgets assisted with washing, shopping and cooking, making women’s lives easier. Watching television became a leisure activity and advertising became more prevalent, especially after ITV was launched in 1955.

What impact did television programmes have?

Television programmes reflected growing affluence and consumerism- programmes about DIY and gardening became popular as people had the means to improve their environment.

What impact did a rise in car ownership have?

Car ownership rose by 25% between 1957 and 1959- this encouraged infrastructure improvement such as the building of motorways which began in 1958 with the Preston bypass.

What impact did rising leisure opportunities have?

Access to cars, increased prosperity and shorter working weeks opened up new leisure, work and holiday opportunities. Holiday camps became extremely popular- on average 60,000 people holidayed each week at Butlins.

Reasons for the decline in deference in the period 1951-1964

• Trust in politicians was shaken by the discovery that the government had lied during the Suez crisis

• Debates over issues like nuclear disarmament encouraged challenges to established ideas

• The behaviour of members of the establishment tainted their reputation

• Satire boom, e.g. Private Eye and Beyond the fringe

• Number of academic studies argued that lack of social mobility had restricted talent

• Angry young men used writings to attack established attitudes- Osborne, Braine, Sillitoe, Barstow

Position of women at home

• 75% of women were married and the average age at which a woman got married was 21

• Their lives tended to be dominated by looking after children, cleaning, cooking, shopping and laundry

• Household appliances became more common- between 1957 and 1959 the number of households with a washing machine rose by 54% and a fridge by 58%

Position of women in the workplace

• Women tended to be deterred from working, especially once they got married

• It was widely believed that working mothers would be detrimental to the development of their children

• The government encouraged women to stay at home- Family Allowance

• Trade unions also discouraged women from working as they feared the new pool of labour would decrease men’s wages

• Some middle class women benefitted from equal pay being introduced for teachers (1952) and in the civil service (1954)

Immigration into Britain

• By 1958, approximately 21,000 Commonwealth immigrants had settled in Britain

• 75% were men working to support family back in their home country

• The majority came from the West Indies, India and Pakistan

• 1.25 million people came to live in Britain in the 1960s

Emigration out of Britain

• Many people moved to Australia and North America

• Australia offered assistance with travel, jobs and housing

• In the 1950s approximately 1.32 million Britons migrated abroad

• In the 1960s outward, migration went up to 1.92 million

Attitudes to immigration and racial violence

• Race riots in Nottingham in 1958

• Notting Hill riots in 1958

• Oswald Moseley tried to become the MP for Notting Hill at the 1959 election, standing on a platform of repatriation

• Immigrants Act in 1962- limited the number of immigrants allowed to come to Britain

Reasons for the emergence of the ‘teenager’ and youth culture

• Booming economy meant full employment and rising wages so young people had disposable income they could spend on themselves

• Advertising and the growth of consumerism recognised the new market and created the teenage image

• Technological change- the radio- made it easier for a separate culture to develop

• End of national service after 1960

• Washing machine introduction

• Baby boom

Groups in the 1950s

• Teddy Boys- early 1950s- wore long coats, narrow trousers, winklepicker shoes, fears linked them to juvenile delinquency and rising crime

• Late 1950s- Rockers- leather clothes, heavy motorcycles

• Late 1950- Mods- smart suits, scooters, sophisticated pop music

• Rivalries between Mods and Rockers led to incidents in Clacton, Margate and Brighton - moral panic

Changing social attitudes

• Reflected in popular culture, e.g. Lady Chatterley’s Lover in 1962 and Victim in 1961

• Mary Whitehouse- began her moral crusade in 1963, setting up a ‘Clean Up TV Campaign’ in 1964 and the National Viewers’ and Listeners’ association in 1965

Why did Britain not join the EEC in 1957?

• Britain wanted to sustain its special relationship with the USA

• Britain perceived itself as a world power, not one of many European nations

• The different experiences of WW2- Germany and France were defeated but Britain won

• The Right preferred to maintain closer ties with the Commonwealth

• The left felt the EEC would be a ‘capitalist’ club

• Not a popular idea with leading politicians

When was EFTA set up?

1959

When did Britain first apply to join the EEC?

1961

Why did attitudes towards the EEC change so quickly?

• Britain had slower growth and productivity than other members

• Suez crisis demonstrated Britain’s limited strength in the world and its reliance on the United States

• Financial concerns showed weakness

• Retreat from the Empire showed a shift in Britain’s perception of its role in the world

• USA saw Britain’s potential entry as a way to ensure the EEC resisted USSR influence

When was the first EEC application rejected?

1963

Why did De Gaulle veto Britain’s entry to the EEC?

Feared lessened French influence and increased influence of the USA

Co-operation with the USA and Britain 1949-61

• 1949- formation of NATO

• 1950-53- Korean War

• 1961- Cuban Missile Crisis

Tensions between Britain and America 1949-61

USA did not support Britain during Suez, Burgess and Maclean spy scandal in 1951 made the USA cautious about sharing intelligence with Britain

Debates over the nuclear deterrent

• Conservative government wanted its own nuclear deterrent to maintain world power status

• 1958- creation of CND

• 1960- Labour conference support for unilateral nuclear disarmament

• 1960- Britain abandoned the independent Blue Streak missile and became reliant on the US Polaris missile

The Korean War 1950-53

Communist North (USSR and China) invaded the South. UN forces were sent, Britain supplied 90,000 of these.

Suez crisis key events

• Eden secretly planned with France and Israel to return the canal to British control. The plan involved an Israeli invasion of Egypt that would allow Britain and France to intervene in a peacekeeping role

• 29th October 1956- Israel invades Egypt

• 5th November- British and French troops sent to Suez, they defeated Egyptian forces

Short-term consequences of Suez

• Labour opposed the attack and protests were held across the country

• Condemned internationally, including by the US

• USA could put Britain under financial pressure and Macmillan warned Eden that Britain could not withstand this. Eden declared a ceasefire

• Eden resigned a year later citing ill health

Long-term consequences of Suez

• Challenged Britain’s reputation as a force for good

• Demonstrated Britain’s reliance on the USA

• Highlighted Britain’s weak economic and financial position

• Threw doubt on Britain’s status as a major world power

When did decolonisation begin?

1947

Reasons for decolonisation between 1951 and 1964

• Independence movements- Mau Mau rebellion in Kenya, movements in Malaya and Cyprus

• International pressure- the US was wary of imperial power

• Financial concerns

• Impact of Suez

When did Wilson win the election?

1964 with a majority of 4, called another election 2 years later to gain a majority of 96

Wilson’s ideology and leadership

Modern and forward thinking in comparison to Douglas-Home

Wilson’s appeal to the Left of Labour

• Wilson was originally on the Left, having resigned with Bevan over prescription charges

• Launched leadership bid against Gaitskell in 1961

Wilson’s appeal to the Right of Labour

• Served in Gaitskell’s shadow cabinet

• In favour of Britain developing nuclear weapons

• As PM he attempted to reform trade unions in 1969

Economic crises between 1951-64

Runs on the pound, rising inflation, balance of payments emergencies, deficit in balance of trade

Deflation and devaluation

Deflation- would prop up streling and prevent a rise in inflation but would essentially continue stop-go policies

Devaluation- would assist with the balance of payment problems by helping Britain’s exports become cheaper but would emphasise economic weakness. Wilson feared Labour being seen as the party of devaluation

What did Wilson do to try and solve economic problems?

DEA set up in 1964, National Board for Prices and Incomes set up in 1965

DEA led by George Brown, set growth targets and created economic planning councils

Both aimed to work with businesses and trade unions to fix wage and price settlements

Why did the Labour governments 1964-70 have limited economic success?

• Rivalry between Brown and Callaghan and the Treasury and the DEA

• DEA abandoned in 1967

• Wilson’s focus on balancing rivals rather than ensuring policy success

• Trade unions becoming more left-wing and more difficult to work with over incomes policy

• Civil servants not convinced or supportive of the role of the DEA

• Leadership of George Brown was unreliable and inconsistent

The economic situation by 1967

Sterling crises in 1965, 1966, and 1967- Wilson was forced to devalue the pound. At the same time, a second application to join the EEC was rejected.

Roy Jenkins introduced deflationary policies that mirrored the stop-go of the 1950s, raising taxes and tightening spending. These were unpopular, but by 1970 there was a balance of payments surplus.

Industrial relations and the trade unions

• By 1966, relationships with trade unions seemed to be breaking down

• Barbara Castle produced In Place of Strife in 1969- this proposed a 28 day cooling off period before a strike could go ahead, the setting up of an industrial relations court and strike ballots

• Trade unions were appalled and many Labour MPs threatened to rebel

• The government backed down

Other domestic policies

Wilson won the 1964 election by promising a ‘white heat of technological change’ in which scientific innovation would help overcome Britain’s low productivity. There were some successes such as the Concorde partnership with France but economic issues overshadowed developments.

The beginning of the Troubles

• Growing evidence of discrimination against Catholics in employment, housing and politics, and by the RUC

• 1968- civil rights marches held to protest against discrimination were attacked

• Some Protestant Unionists feared the IRA would start a new campaign of violence

• 1969- loyalist Apprentice Boys march was attacked by nationalists

• Battle of Bogside

• August 1969- Labour government sent British troops to Northern Ireland to keep the peace

The end of the post-war consensus

Had not dealt with ongoing financial and economic pressures, poverty and social problems remained unsolved

Labour government strengths

Wilson’s affable image, impact of devaluation and deflation, liberal reform

Labour government weaknesses

Economic problems: sterling crises, devaluation, tax rises and public spending cuts

Failure to reform industrial relations

Concerns about the permissive society

Conservative opposition strengths and weaknesses

Promise to reform industrial relations, Heath seen as competent, but was unpopular

What are private members’ bills

Bills put forward by individual MPs rather than the government or opposition parties. When these are directed at moral issues, parties usually allow their MPs to decide how they want to vote. These bills are usually unsuccessful unless the government enables their progression as Jenkins did during his tenure as Home Secretary.

End of capital punishment

• Influenced by the limits to the number of capital crimes introduced in 1957, the case of Ruth Ellis, and the campaigning work of Sydney Silverman

• Initially abolished for a 5 year trial in 1965, the change was made permanent in 1969

Divorce reform

• Influenced by second-wave feminism

• Divorce Reform Act 1969- allowed ‘no fault’ divorce where a marriage had irretrievably broken down. A couple could divorce if they lived apart for 2 years and both consented, or lived apart for 5 years where one party did not consent.

• Divorce rates rose from 2 in 1000 marriages in 1950 to 10 in 1000 by the mid-1970s

Abortion legalisation influences

• Campaigning by David Steel

• Demand for abortion- between 100,000 and 200,000 abortions were performed illegally each year

• Impact of illegal backstreet abortions- around 35,000 abortions were admitted to hospital each year with complications following an abortion and between 1958 and 1960 82 women died as a result of these complications

• Thalidomide disaster 1959-62 which increased the number of abnormal foetuses

Abortion legalisation

1967 Abortion Act legalised abortion within the first 28 weeks of pregnancy with the written consent of 2 doctors. The number of abortions went up from 4 per 100 live briths in 1967 to 17.6 in 1975

The legalisation of homosexuality

• The Wolfenden committee, set up by the Conservative government had recommended the decriminalisation of homosexuality, campaigning by Leo Abse

• Sexual Offences Act of 1967 decriminalised homosexuality if both partners were over 21, both partners had to consent and it had to be private

• However, some prosecution of homosexual men continued

Reasons for educational reform

Grammar schools were dominated by the middle class, secondary school pupils were seen as failures from the age of 11 years old

Reasons for the introduction of comprehensive schools

• Wilson argued that the comprehensive system ensured all pupils could have a grammar school education, rather than this being limited to a minority of pupils

• Tony Crosland became Minister of Education in 1965

• Crosland encouraged the introduction of more comprehensives in 1965 by issuing Circular 10/65 requesting that LEAs convert to comprehensive schools

• In 1965 money for new school building became conditional on LEAs drawing up plans for comprehensive schools

The introduction of comprehensive schools

• By 1964, 1 in 10 pupils were being educated in a comprehensive school, an increase of 10x since 1951

• By 1970 all but 8 LEAs had drawn up plans to introduce comprehensive schools

• By 1970 there were 1145 comprehensive schools and 1 in 3 of state-educated pupils went to a comprehensive school

Impact of the introduction of comprehensive schools

• Initially there was a lot of disruption as schools were merged to create comprehensive schools

• Some middle-class parents turned to direct grant schools or the independent sector to avoid comprehensive schools

• The retention of grammar schools meant that not all comprehensive schools were truly comprehensive

The expansion of higher education

• Colleges of Technology became polytechnics concentrating on applied education

• Nine Colleges of Advanced Technology became universities

• New universities were founded such as Bath and Bradford

• By 1968 there were 56 universities and 30 polytechnics which opened up opportunities to new types of potential students- even though the more established universities continued to enjoy a higher status

The Open University

• Increasing social mobility by creating opportunities for people who had previously been denied them and modernising Britain

• Opened in 1969 and started running from 1971

• Most students were part time and tended to come from less traditional backgrounds- older people, women, the working class

• By 1980 the OU had 70,000 students and awarded more degrees each year than Oxford and Cambridge put together

The expansion of the mass media

Television- Hugh Green encouraged the development of new programming- more populism, satire and realistic drama. ITV started in 1952 and BBC2 in 1964. Percentage of population that had a television in their home increased from 75% in 1961 to 91% in 1971

Radio- teenagers listened to popular music firstly by pirate radio stations and then BBC Radio 1

Print media- The Sun was launched in 1964 and maintained a high readership by reflecting popular culture

How did leisure change during the 1960s?

• Traditional activities such as gardening and cooking remained popular and TV programmes reflected these interests

• TV meant that attendance at live entertainments fell, greater access to cars enabled people to travel more easily to activities

• Britannia Airways was founded in 1964. Package holidays grew from 4% of holidays in 1966 to 8.4% in 1971 though this was still only for a minority.

Impact of scientific developments

Human space travel in 1961, moon landings in 1969, new technologies, e.g. cars, household appliances and radios becoming more affordable, new fabrics in fashion, contraceptive pill became available

Reduction in censorship

• Due to a private members’ bill that had the support of Roy Jenkins

• Ended theatrical censorship

• Followed a number of disputes

• Film censorship remained, films covered more daring themes such as adultery, abortion and illegitimacy

Progress towards female equality

• Second-wave feminism

• Working mothers still portrayed as unnatural

• By 1970 28% of students were women, but this did not lead to greater employment opportunities- by 1970 only 5% of women reached managerial posts

• Girls’ education still tended to be dominated by domestic skills

• Key feminist texts- The Female Eunuch, The Feminine Mystique

• Women’s liberation conference in 1970- demanded equal pay, free contraception, abortion on request, equal opportunities, free childcare

Women’s lives 1964-70

• Labour-saving devices in the home freed women, but advertising still enforced role as a housewife

• Increased education and access to higher education encouraged women to develop higher expectations, but slow and difficult progress along career paths was frustrating

• Increased availability of jobs gave women greater independence, but women were still responsible for the home and children

• Greater control over family planning, men could avoid responsibility

• Easier divorce, but still a lack of economic independence

Permissiveness

• Availability of contraception

• Easier access to divorce

• Decriminalisation of homosexuality

• Number of illegitimate births rose from 5.8% to 8.2% between 1960 and 1970

• Changed attitudes to sex exemplified by the hippy emphasis on free love

• Rates of STDs rising

• Decline in censorship and the rise in more daring and controversial themes in books, films, theatre and television

• Greater visibility of drugs in pop culture, e.g. The Beatles

• Use of cocaine rose by 10x

• Wootton Report of 1968 recommended the decriminalisation of soft drugs

Non-permissiveness

• Catholic Church opposed the use of contraceptives

• Mary Whitehouse- National Viewers’ and Listeners’ Association in 1965 to campaign against declining moral standards in the media

• Rejection of the Wootton Report by Callaghan

• Sentence for supplying drugs was increased to 14 years in 1970

• Surveys found most young people were either virgins on marriage or married their first and only sexual partner

• Young people used alcohol and tobacco more than illegal drugs

Youth culture

• Largely defined by fashion, London was seen as the fashion capital. Often caused clashes with the older generation. Women wore trousers and miniskirts and men wore bright patterns as traditional rules were abandoned.

• Music- pirate radio, Radio 1, Top of the Pops

• New youth subcultures- skinheads, hippies- rejected social conventions and promoted free love, environmentalism and peace

Anti-Vietnam War riots

1965- teach-ins on Vietnam held at Oxford University

1966- Vietnam Solidarity Campaign set up

March 1968- violence at a demonstration held outside the American Embassy, Battle of Grosvenor Square

October 1967- anti-war demonstration outside Grosvenor Square attracted 30,000 people

Attempts to stop racial discrimination

• 1964- Notting Hill Carnival

• 1965- Race Relations Act forbade discrimination in public place on the basis of colour or race through excluded housing and employment.

• 1968- Race Relations Act banned discrimination in housing, employment and services. Race Relations Board was strengthened.

• Late 1960s- much youth culture drew on the music, fashion and philosophies of immigrant culture

Racial tension and concerns about discrimination

• 1965 survey in North London showed 1/5 didn’t want to work with Black or Asian people, 50% said they didn’t want to live next door to a Black person, 9/10 people disapproved of mixed marrriages

• April 1968- Enoch Powell’s Rivers of Blood speech- gained public support

• February 1968- Commonwealth Immigration Act- Asians in Kenya facing persecution began to arrive in Britain in greater numbers, the Act restricted the rights for non-white Commonwealth citizens

Wilson and the Vietnam War

• USA wanted support and approval

• Wilson wanted to keep the Atlantic Alliance intact And wanted the USA to remain committed to resisting the communist threat in Europe, especially in the light of the USSR’s invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968

• The USA was disappointed in Britain’s limited support

• Wilson disappointed the Left who wanted him to condemn the war

• Britain wasn’t in a good financial position to become involved in a war and there was much opposition to British involvement

Those who were against joining the EEC

• Gaitskell- opposed application of the Conservative government in 1961

• Those on the Left saw the EEC as a capitalist club, e.g. Michael Foot and Barbara Castle

• Trade unions

Those who were in favour of joining the EEC

Senior members of cabinet such as Roy Jenkins and George Brown

Labour splits over Europe in the 1960s

• Wilson was ambivalent- he favoured the special relationship over the EEC but he could see the potential economic benefits of joining. He also needed to unite the party.

• By 1966 Wilson was persuaded by the economic case to apply, the Left wasn’t too critical as they believed the application would be rejected

• The application was rejected in November 1967- De Gaulle vetoed Britain’s membership because Wilson did not give assurances that Britain was prepared to lessen the special relationship

Withdrawal East of Suez

• Reducing Britain’s military commitments in the Commonwealth was necessary for economic reasons

• Spending cuts aimed to bring the defence budget down below £2 billion by 1970

• 1967- the Minister for Defence, Denis Healey, set a timetable to withdraw troops from Aden, the Middle East, Malaysia and Singapore

• This timetable was accelerated in January 1968 after the devaluation crisis so troops were to be withdrawn by the end of 1971

Rhodesia

• The Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland broke up into Northern Rhodesia, Southern Rhodesia and Nyasaland in 1963- these new states wanted independence

• Northern Rhodesia became the independent Zambia in 1964

• Nyasaland became the independent Malawi in 1964

• Southern Rhodesia wanted independence

• Britain didn’t want to allow independence for Southern Rhodesia whilst it insisted on maintaining white minority rule

Key chronology of Rhodesia

• PM Ian Smith issued a Unilateral Declaration of Independence without accepting majority rule- 1965

• Wilson declared this to be illegal and put economic sanctions on Rhodesia- 1965

• Wilson met Ian Smith on board HMS Tiger to discuss a negotiated settlement; progress was made but Smith went back on what was agreed- 1966

• More talks were held on HMS Fearless but no progress was made- 1969

Consequences of Rhodesia

• Wilson was unable to make Smith back down

• Other Commonwealth countries were unhappy about the situation in Rhodesia and Britain’s failure to change it

• Britain’s limited influence made it look weak

• Failure to end white majority rule disappointed many on the Labour Left

• Sanctions remained and Rhodesia’s independence was not officially recognised until 1979

Heath as leader

• Experienced- Conservative leader since 1965

• First Conservative leader to have been chosen through a formal election process

• State school background

• Won the 1970 election with a clear programme of reform, especially around industrial relations and economic modernisation

• Was a Europhile- committed to Britain’s entry into the EEC

Heath’s weaknesses

• Seen as aloof and irritable and wasn’t personally popular, either with the electorate or members of the party

• Lost 1966 and 1974 elections

• Premiership marred by industrial disputes and economic problems

• Defeated in leadership election of 1975 by Margaret Thatcher, ongoing antipathy between them and their supporters

Selsdon Park Policy Programme

• Tax reform

• Improved law and order

• Trade union control

• Immigration control

• Cuts to public spending

• End of public subsidy to lame duck industries

Response to economic issues

• Chancellor Barber introduced tax cuts to stimulate economic growth. ‘Barber boom’ saw rising inflation and rising unemployment to 1 million- stagflation.

• Heath nationalised Rolls Royce in 1971 and in 1973 put public subsidy into the Upper Clyde Shipbuilders to stop it from going bankrupt

• Continuing public subsidy to lame duck industries went against Selsdon Park but supported the PWC aim of full employment

Economic situation by 1973

Unemployment fell back to 500,000, investment into modernising industry seemed to be working