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What resources does the earth have that make it suitable for life?
Matter
Energy from the sun
The Big Bang Theory
Universe started as a singularity, initially so hot and dense that the laws of physics as we know them did not apply.
Rapid expansion (explosion) of the universe allowed fundamental forces of physics to separate, matter to form.
Doppler Effect
Objects moving towards the observer have shorter wavelength
Objects moving away from the observer have a longer wavelength
When the star is moving away from the starlight it is called?
red-shifted
how does the universe sounds like we would expect from the big bang theory
Cosmic microwave background radiation (not actually sound- but easy to remember as the background "hiss" of static)
The most common element in the universe
hydrogen(-90%) and helium (-9%)
what is the simplest form of matter
Hydrogen: 1 proton and 1 ecetron
estimated age of the universe
13.8 billion years
Solar Nebular Hypothesis
a belief that the solar system began as a cloud of interstellar dust and gas, known as a nebula, that started to spin and condense into a solar system.
The hypothesis states: Solar systems start as nebular clouds that collapse in on itself.
what is the age of the earth
4.6 billion years
what is a system
Any part of the universe that we can isolate for study
what is a model
A simplified representation of something used to organize information in manageable forms
what are the characteristics of a system?
Boundaries
Inputs and outputs
Cycles
Dynamic interactions
isolated system
matter and energy can't enter
closed system
matter can enter but not energy
open system
open to both matter and energy
is the earth an open or closed system
closed system
what is a cycle
A cycle is a process or series of events that repeats regularly
Examples: water cycle, air cycle
what are the basics of a geochemical cycle
reservoirs, fluxes and residence time
reservoirs
a place where the matter accumulates
fluxes
rate of transfer of matter from one reservoir to another
residence time
the amount of time an average "piece" of matter (molecule, atom) resides in the reservoir.
How is residence time calculated?
Amount of matter in reservoir / removal rate(or supply rate)
what is a steady state
Removal=Supply
Positive coupling:
same direction of change in linked components
negative coupling
opposition direction of change in linked components.
Feedback loops
Couplings create feedback loops. When a change in one part of a system produces an effect that can further alter the first part of the system.
Positive feedback
this amplifies the initial change
negative feedback
opposes the initial change
two forms of energy
Potential Energy (stored: such as water in water tower)
Kinetic Energy
Potential Energy: Energy that is stored in system, can take the form of
chemical energy, nuclear energy, stored mechanical energy, gravitational energy
chemical energy
energy is required to break bonds, it is released when bonds are formed. Energy from heating food or fuel source.
nuclear energy
radioactive decay, nuclear reactions (Fission:splitting atoms, Fusion: combining atoms to form a single atom).
stored mechanical energy
Energy stored in objects by the application of force
Gravitational Energy
roller coasters is an example of this
Kinetic energy:
energy of motion, expressed through movement of electrons, atoms, molecules and objects.
examples of kinetic energy
motion, radiant energy, thermal energy, electrical energy and sound
radiant energy
comes in the form of waves, shorter the wavelength the higher the amount of energy, light is a form of radiant energy.
thermal energy
heat is change in energy, temperature measure of molecular speed.
latent heat
amount of energy required to change the state of matter)
electrical energy
movement of electrons along a metal wire.
For Earth's temperature to be stable over long periods of time, incoming energy and outgoing energy have to be equal. this state of balance is called?
radiative equilibrium.
The sun is a star that produces heat as a result of
thermonuclear reactions(fusion)
Internal Energy Sources
Radiogenic heat (50-90%)
Accretionary heat
Tidal heating (friction)( -0.5%)
Core formation
Net Radiation
balance between incoming short-wave energy from the sun and all outgoing radiation from the Earth.
Nucleosynthesis:
the element formation in stars
The chemical behavior of an atom is determined by
the distribution of electrons in electron shells
Groups
elements in a vertical column that have the same number of electrons in their valence shell and this have similar properties.
A covalent bond
the sharing of a pair of valence electrons by two atoms, the shared electrons count as part of each atom's valence shell.
Polar covalent bonds
one atom is more electronegative, and the atoms do not share the electron equally.
Hydrogen bonds
This forms when a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to one electronegative atom is also attracted to another electronegative atom.
Law Thermal Expansion
As materials warm, they expand, this is true of solids liquids and gasses
which is more dense and thin, continental crust or oceanic crust
continental crust
Modern theory: Plate tectonics
The outer solid portion of the earth is composed of rigid plates that slowly move over the underlying mantle.
1912: Wegener's Continental Drift Hypothesis
The continents were once united into a single supercontinent called Pangaea, meaning all earth in ancient Greek. He suggested that Pangaea broke up long ago and that the continents then moved to their current positions.
World War II prompted 2 major technological advances
Sonar- depth of the seafloor(bathymetry)
Magnetometers- great for detecting metal hulls of submarines or the magnetic signature of rocks on the seafloor.
who proposed a theory on seafloor spreading?
Harry Hess, Naval officer in WWII
paleomagnetism
Magnetic minerals in lavas alien with local magnetic girls when they cool
Lithosphere(stronger)
crust+uppermost mantle = tectonic plate
Asthenosphere
layer in the upper mantle
Divergent boundary
at divergent plate boundaries he two plates are moving away from one another
Convergent boundary
the two plates are moving towards each other
Transform boundary
the two plates are sliding past each other
what causes earthquakes
Solid portion of the earth causes friction and the rocks break
what causes volcanoes to erupt
when the earth is generate new crust
Some examples of various plate tectonic processes
subduction, volcanism, oceanic ridge spreading, mountain building, rift formation.
convergent plate boundaries
subduction, ocean-ocean, ocean-continent
subduction
one plate is pushed into the mantle
Ocean- ocean
island arcs which is a chain of volcanic islands form behind a trench
ocean-continent
ocean crust subducts under less dense continental crust
are there more big earthquakes or small ones
small earthquakes
Where do the biggest earthquakes occur?
We tend to see the biggest earthquakes on convergent plate boundaries. They are so strong that they move the ocean and generate tsunamis.
Compression /primary (p-waves)
Rock pushed or pulled forward or backward
Oscillation of particle parallel to wave direction
Fastest seismic waves
Travel through all layers of the earth
Shear /secondary (s-waves)
Rock is shaken or whipped
Oscillation of particle perpendicular to wave direction
Second fastest seismic wave. cannot travel through air water or molten rock because liquids flow toto easily and cannot sustain shear forces.
Shadow Zone
is an area where a seismic wave cannot be detected after it has passed through the earth.
This is how we know the earth has an outer core.
seismometer
detects P, S and L waves.
Measure how much energy has been released by the earthquake.
Measure the arrival time of P, S and L waves
what is the intersection where the circles meet on the map known as?
epicenter of earthquake
Lava Hazards
Not the most hazardous volcanic emission.
Damages property but generally moves slowly so people can get out of the way. Dangerous to infrastructure.
Note
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