chapter one - intro to the developmental perspective

developmental systems perspective

advocates the notion that human development is the product of changing relations between the developing person and his or her changing multilevel environmental contexts

epigenesis

development is the result of an ongoing, bidirectional interchange between one’s biological characteristics (including heredity) and the environment - suggests a strong interdependence of heredity and the environment in one’s resulting phenotype (observable traits).

quantitative change

change in number or amount, such as height, weight, or time

qualitative change

change in structure or organization, as marked by the emergence of a new behavior—for example, change in the process characteristics of balance and walking.

motor development

study of change in motor behavior resulting from the interaction of biological processes and the environment.

life-span perspective

the developmental process extends beyond puberty and young adulthood

multidisciplinary approach

behavior in any domain (cognitive, affective, and psychomotor) is the product of many influences. To have a fuller understanding of human development, one should consider the full range of possible influences

what are the five major goals of developmentalists?

1.To describe characteristic change

2. To establish when change occurs

3. To describe what causes change

4. To determine whether change can be predicted

5. To find out whether change is individual or universal

heredity

Biological traits received from parents

• 23 pairs of chromosomes

growth and development

changes in quantity

development

changes in functioning

maturation

Internal timetable

• Qualitative functional change

motor behavior

Learning and control

Cephalocaudal and proximodistal

used to describe the rather predictable sequences of growth and motor control.

• growth that proceeds longitudinally from the head to the feet

• is growth that proceeds from the center of the body to its periphery—that is, growth and motor control occur in the trunk region and shoulders before the wrists, hands, and fingers.

environmental contexts

circumstances, objects, or conditions by which one is surrounded.

• affordances

affordances

opportunities for action that objects, events, or places in the environment provide. Examples of affordances include toys, stairs in the home, and swimming pools. These affordances provide the stimulus for motor development.

developmentally appropriate

instruction (program) and practice of activities appropriate for the level and needs of the individual.

experience

conditions within the environment that may alter or modify various developmental characteristics through the learning process.

learning

Learning is (as stated earlier) the relatively permanent change in performance that results from practice or past experience.

readiness

Readiness is the combination of maturation and experience that prepares an individual to acquire a skill or understanding.

adaptation

process of altering one’s behaviors to interact effectively with the environment. The term is often used to describe the complex interplay between the individual and the environment.

aging

characterized as the deteriorated capacity to regulate the internal environment (e.g., cellular, molecular, and organismic structures), resulting in a reduced probability of survival.

assumptions about development

1. Continual and cumulative process

▪ Continuity and discontinuity

▪ Phases/developmental periods

2. All domains are interrelated

3. Individual differences

4. Environmental context plays a major role

5. Critical and sensitive periods

6. Positive stimulation

7. Plasticity

8. Motor skill development is a “dynamic process”

▪ not prewired but self-organizing

9. Regression is inevitable

10.Biology and environment context play interactive roles

plasticity

Humans have a dramatic capacity for change, in response to positive or negative life experiences at virtually all periods in the life span.

critical period

refers to an optimal time for the emergence of certain developmental processes and behaviors.

sensitive period

reflects a time in the life span when individuals may be especially sensitive to specific influences. An example is possible exposure to teratogens—agents such as drugs, stress, and alcohol—that can cause fetal malformation.

development period

describe a time span that is associated with specific behavior (e.g., infancy, adolescence).

phase

To describe the “transitional” characteristics of behavior, not purely set within a specific time (age) frame,

periods of life span development

representing approximate chronological age behavior.

1. prenatal (from conception to birth)

2. infancy (birth to 2 years)

3. early and late childhood (2-6 and 6-12)

4. adolescence (12 to 18)

5. adulthood (18+) (young 18-40, middle 40-60, old 60+)

developmental continuum

look at graph

reflexive/spontaneous mvmt phase

span of motor behavior that begins at about the third fetal month and continues after birth into the first year of life. Movements at this phase mirror the relative immaturity of the nervous system. As the system matures, reflexes (involuntary motor responses) and spontaneous movements (stereotypic rhythmic patterns of motion

rudimentary phase

stage of infancy (from birth to 2 years). Rudimentary behavior is voluntary movement in its first form.

fundamental mvmt phase

major milestone of early childhood (from 2 to 6 years) and of life-span motor development. Considered an outgrowth of rudimentary behavior, this phase witnesses the appearance of a number of fundamental movement abilities: perceptual-motor awareness (e.g., body awareness and balance), locomotor skills (e.g., running and jumping), nonlocomotor skills (e.g., twisting/turning and stretching/bending), and manipulative skills (e.g., throwing and kicking).

sports skill phase

The motor skills and movement awareness abilities the child acquires during the fundamental movement phase gradually become more refined and, in many instances, adapted to sport and recreational activities in the sport skill phase.

growth and refinement phase

Growth may occur during all periods of development, but perhaps the most significant motor behavior change is seen at the time of puberty and the accompanying growth spurt that generally marks the first stage of adolescence.

peak performance

peak performance (peak physiological function and maximal motor performance) to be between 25 and 30 years of age. As a general rule, females tend to mature at the lower end of the range (from 22 to 25 years) and males at the upper end of the range (from 28 to 30 years). This correlates to these strengths: strength, cardiorespiratory function, and processing speed

regression

Although considerable variation among individuals is apparent after 30 years of age, most physiological and neurological factors decline at a rate of about 0.75% to 1% a year. During this phase, the phenomenon known as psychomotor slowing (primarily in speeded tasks) appears, and the earlier developmental process of differentiation begins to reverse, which results in similar performance characteristics among the very young and the older adult.

importance of research

▪ Need to be aware

▪ Understand normal and abnormal

▪ Improve

▪ Knowledge

why study motor development?

1. To interact effectively with other individuals, we need to be aware of what they can and cannot do—motorically, cognitively, and socially.

2. If we understand what constitutes the normal range of motor development, we can better understand and guide individuals who may be developing abnormally.

3. We can use our understanding of motor development to improve health and optimize motor performance.

4. Our understanding of motor development contributes to a more comprehensive body of knowledge that, in turn, enables us to better understand ourselves.

cross sectional design

Investigators observe age differences by selecting individuals who represent different age groups and measuring their behaviors. In the cross-sectional study, participants are chosen carefully, so individuals in the different age samples are as nearly alike as possible in all ways other than age.

• permits a developmental change to be detected in a fairly short period of time.

• groups (cohorts) grow up under different circumstances, such as those related to education, nutrition, and habits of physical activity.

longitudinal study

In this method, data are collected on the same individual over an extended period of time, usually across several years. One strength of this design is that development is observed directly and not implied, as with the cross-sectional and cross-cultural methods. It may be one of the best designs, but the method has weaknesses. Over a long period of time, participants may move away, testing personnel may change, and the cost of the study in time and money may be a problem. Repeated testing of the same participants may also be a problem.

microgenetic design

With this approach, change is tracked over a series of sessions from the time it begins until it stabilizes, as participants master an expected or novel task. This method can be quite effective for observing behavior that emerges over a relatively short period of time, such as specific reflexes and initial infant reaching. It offers the potential for unique insight into the developmental process.

brain imaging techniques

Imaging (structure/anatomical)

• MRI

• CT

• fMRI

Imaging (functioning)

• fMRI

• MEG

• PET

• fNIR

• TMS

biological-maturation (gesell)

behavior tied to maturation

learning behavior (bandura)

observational learning (modeling)

cognitive-developmental (piaget)

actively seeking and exploring via Play

mri

uses the detection of radio frequency signals produced by displaced radio waves in a magnetic field. It provides an anatomical view of the brain. It has several advantages over the other techniques described (e.g., it is safe and painless, and no special preparation is required); however, it is also expensive and cannot be used with claustrophobic patients (the participant lies in a body-length capsule).

functional mri

detects changes in blood flow to particular areas of the brain. It provides both an anatomical and a functional view of the brain. In the brain, blood perfusion is presumably related to neural activity, so fMRI can be used to find out what the brain is doing when participants perform specific tasks or are exposed to specific stimuli.

eeg

measures changes in brain function

Magnetoencephalography (MEG)

Magnetoencephalography (MEG) measures the magnetic fields produced by electrical activity in the brain (function).

functional near-infrared imaging

Functional near-infrared imaging (fNIR) is one of the more recent technological creations that works relatively well with those populations. It is a spectroscopic imaging method for measuring the level of neuronal activity (function) in the brain. The technique is based on neurovascular coupling; that is, the relationship between metabolic activity and oxygen level (oxygenated

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) uses brief high-intensity magnetic fields to stimulate corticospinal neurons. Weak electric currents are induced in the tissue by rapidly changing magnetic fields.

environmental context theories

Bioecological Systems Theory (Bronfenbrenner)

• Microsystem

• Mesosystem

• Exosystem

• Macrosystem

• Chronosystem (time)

Gibson’s Ecological Theory

• Individuals perceive and act on information

• Affordances (environmental “opportunities”)

biological systems theories

▪ Information processing view

• Human/computer model

Developmental Biodynamics

▪ Coordinative structures

• Synergies (muscle groupings)

▪ Dynamic systems

• Unfolding of motor behavior

• Self-organizing/subsystems (rate controller)

▪ Neuronal group selection

• Brain circuitry (wiring of neuronal groups)

developmental cognitive neuroscience

The scientific “field” that addresses the question:

• What are the interrelations between developmental changes in the brain

(e.g., morphology, connectivity) and developmental changes in

perceptual and motor behavior?

contraints

an excellent approach to observing, assessing, and studying motor behavior across the life span from an ecological perspective. This model has strong implications for both teachers and clinicians. While incorporating the developmental systems elements of the individual (biological factors) and the environment, emphasis is also given to a third factor, the task, as part of the environmental context. The underlying notion is that the qualitative and quantitative aspects of movement emerge from these factors.

theoretical views

look at very large model

careers in motor development

Preparation for:

• Teaching

• Coaching

• Preprofessional

Primary careers:

• University

• Government/private (education/research)

• Physical/occupational therapy specialists

• Business/industry (media, publications)