Unit 1: Intro to Maps and Spatial Patterns

Map

A two-dimensional model of the Earth’s surface, or a portion of it

• Reference tools - show where something is found and how to get there

• Communication tools - depict the distribution of human activities/physical features

Cartography

The science of mapmaking

Geospatial Technologies

• Remote Sensing

• Global Positioning System (GPS)

• Geographic Information System (GIS)

  • Layers

  • Mashups

Remote Sensing

The process of capturing images of Earth’s surface from airborne platforms such as satellites or airplanes

• Used for examining land use patterns, weather forecasting, examining the impact of natural disasters, etc.

Global Positioning System (GPS)

The system that accurately determines the precise position of something on Earth via satellites and receivers

• Used for navigation, tracking position or location, etc.

Geographic Information System (GIS)

A computer system that captures, stores, analyzes, and displays geographic data

• Used for tracking and managing data to use in decision making

• Layers - types of information (countries, bodies of water, names of places, etc.) displayed in a map

• Mashups - the practice of combining layers on a map

Qualitative Data

Data associated with a humanistic approach to geography

• Collected through surveys, interviews, observations, artifact analysis, etc.

• Describes things that are up for debate

• Findings are expressed narratively

Quantitative Data

Data associated with mathematical models and statistical techniques

• Collected through surveys, polls, questionnaires, etc.

• Describes things that are factual rather than debateable

• Findings expressed as statistical analysis

Parts of a map

• Latitude

• Equator

• Longitude

• Prime Meridian

• Map Key/Legend

• Map Scale

• Toponym

Latitude

The distance north or south of the equator

Equator

An imaginary line that circles the globe exactly halfway between the poles (0 degrees)

Longitude

The distance east or west of the Prime Meridian

Map Key/Legend

An insect on a map that explains what the colors or symbols used mean and what the scale of the map is

Map Scale

The ratio between the size of things in the real world and the size of things on a map

• Communicated as a ratio/fraction, written scale, or as a line

Toponym

The name given to a place on Earth

Relative Location

The description of where something is in relation to other things

Absolute Location

The precise place where something is found

Relative Distance

The distance between two points, measured using metrics like time, effort, or cost

Absolute Distance

The distance between two points, communicated using precise quantitative units of measurement

Relative Direction

Direction based on a person’s surroundings and perception

Absolute Direction

Directions according to a compass

Density

How often or how much something occurs within a space

Distribution

Where something occurs within a space

Clustered

High level of density and a low level of distribution

Dispersed

Low level of density due to high level of distribution

Distance Decay

The theory that interaction (flow of goods, people) between two places decreases as the distance between them increases

Time-Space Compression

The reduction in the time it takes to diffuse something to a distant place, as the result of improved communication and transportation technologies

Small Scale Maps

Maps that show a large area with a small amount of detail

• A map showing whole countries or world regions

Large Scale Maps

Maps that show a small area with a large amount of detail

• A closeup of a county or community

Scale Analysis

The level at which data in a map is displayed

• Four scales of analysis:

  • Global - shows the world at one level of data

  • Regional - shows data by continent or major world regions

  • National - shows data for one or more countries

  • Local - shows data at a subnational level

Reference Maps

Emphasize geographic locations on Earth’s surface. Displays boundaries, names, and unique identifiers of geographic areas such as states, provinces, or countries. Also shows other physical features - focuses on places

• Political maps

• Road maps

• Plat maps

• Locator maps

Political maps

Shows spacial organization of the countries and territories on the entire globe at a given point in time

Physical maps

Depicts the Earth’s natural land forms and bodies of water

Road Maps

Map of motorists, showing roads

Plat Maps

Shows legal division of land into smaller lots

Locator Maps

Simple map that shows location of a specific area within a larger area

Thematic Maps

Spacial patterns of geographic statistics or attributes. Show distribution of a single attribute or characteristic or the relationship among several - focuses on data

• Chloropleth Maps

• Dot Distribution Maps

• Graduated Symbol Maps

• Isoline Maps

• Cartograms

Chloropleth Maps

Shows data aggregated for a specific geographic area, typically for a specific geographic area, typically a political unit such as a country, province, or state. Colors represent different data

Dot Distribution Map

Uses symbols to represent data, show density differences in geographic distributions across a map

Graduated Symbol Map

Displays quantitative data by symbols of various sizes such as circles or squares

Isoline Maps

A thematic map that uses lines (isolines) to connect points of equal value such as elevation or temperature

Cartograms

Map that distorts geographic shape of an area in order to show the size of a specific variable

Mercator

• Used for navigation

• Directions are shown accurately

• Shapes are relative the way they appear on the globe (near the equator)

• Size of land masses are distorted

Peters

• Illustrates spacial distribution

• Size of land masses are accurate

• Shapes of land masses are inaccurate, especially near poles

Conic

• Best suited for regional mapping

• Size and shape are both close to reality

• Longitude line coverage at only one pole (directional issues)

Robinson

• Used for general use

• No glaring distortion

• Oval shape appears more like a globe

• Area, shape, size, direction all slightly distorted (more pronounced near poles)

Regionalization

The process of dividing a large area into smaller, distinct regions based on shared characteristics like culture, economy, or geography which facilitates analysis and comparison

Region

A geographical unit based on one or more common characteristics or functions

Types of Regions

• Formal

• Functional

• Perceptual

Formal

Geographical areas defined by shared physical or cultural characteristic of established governmental boundaries. Define by official boundaries

• Countries (political)

• The Sahara Desert (physical climate)

Functional

A geographical area organized around a central point, or node, that serves as a focal point for specific activities like economic, transportation, and communication networks

• Service area of a power plant

• A city’s metropolitan area

• A delivery zone

Perceptual (vernacular)

A geographical area defined by people’s shared attitude’s boundaries

• The “American South”

• The “Middle East”

Corn Belt

A fertile region of the mid-western United States, stretching from Ohio to Nebraska and Kansas, and from Minnesota to Missouri

Hinterland

The remote, underdeveloped, or rural area lying inland from a coast to urban center

Mental Maps

The internal, subjective representations people form of their environment and spacial information, healing them to understand, navigate, and interact with their surroundings

Overlapping Regional Boundaries

A place can belong to more than one region

• Brazil

Transitional Regional Boundaries

Some regions don’t have sharp, distinct boundaries. Instead, they have transitional zones, a space that exhibits characteristics of both the regions that it is located between

Contested Regional Boundaries

Because boundaries are man-made concepts, they are often disputed

What are the Impact of Overlapping, Transitional, and Contested Regions?

• Economic

• Social

• Political

• Environmental

Economic Impacts

• Positive:

  • New technologies can arise

  • Increased transport efficiency

  • Economic interdependence

• Negative:

  • Reduced investment

  • Foreign places

  • Restricted trade

Social Impacts

• Positive:

  • Fosters collaboration

  • Partnerships

  • Social progress/equity

• Negative:

  • Public heath

  • Homelessness

  • Public school system

Political Impacts

• Positive:

  • Increased coordination

  • New policy approaches

• Negative:

  • Corruption and coercion

  • Political polarization

Environmental Impacts

• Positive:

  • Encouraging clearer practices

• Negative:

  • Air pollution

  • Climate change

Cultural Ecology

A geographic approach that emphasizes human-environment relationships

• Human impact the environment through pollution, pesticides, deforestation, fishing, hunting, poaching, etc.

Natural Resources

Materials from nature that have value to humans and can be used to meet their needs

• Renewable resources - resources that can be used repeatedly because they will be replaced (methane, hydro/solar power)

• Nonrenewable resources - resources that will eventually run out because they cannot be replaced in a suitable amount of time

Sustainability

Use of the Earth’s resources in ways that ensure their availability for future generations

• Important because…

  • Protects ecosystems

  • Preserves natural resources

  • Improves quality of life for humans

• Examples of sustainable practices:

  • Clean energy

  • Water treatment

  • Eco-friendly constructor

  • Waste reduction

  • Recycling

  • Electric vehicles

  • Protected green space

  • Reforestation

Environmental Determinism

A philosophy that states that human behaviors and culture are a direct result of the surrounding environment

• The environment controls human activity

• Humans are dependent on the natural environment

• Examples:

  • Antarctica

    • Extreme climate

  • Settlements

    • Built around freshwater

Criticisms of Environmental Determinism

• Humans are innovators with free will

• Humans have adapted the natural environment to fir their needs (settlements, roads, etc.)

• Used as a tool of colonialism, racism, and imperialism

Possibilism

The theory that the environmental conditions of a place can limit its culture but that culture is primarily determined by social conditions

• Humans can determine their culture and activities

• Nature provides people with possibilities that they choose from

• Societies with a high level of technology are less influences by their natural surroundings

• Examples:

  • Las Vegas

    • Located in desert

    • Humans alter environment

    • Cooling systems

  • Industrial Revolution

    • Spread around the world regardless of different environmental conditions

Criticisms of Possibilism

• Nature (climate, natural disasters) cannot be completely overcome by human will and innovation

• Discourages the study of nature and understates its importance