AP Psychology Social Psychology and Personality Terms

attribution theory

the theory that

we explain someone's behavior by

crediting either the situation or the

person's disposition.

dispositional attribution

explaining someone's behavior by attributing it to internal factors like personality traits, attitudes, or abilities.

explanatory style

a person's habitual way of explaining the causes of events, both positive and negative, in their lives.

external locus of control

the perception that chance or

outside forces beyond our personal

control determine our fate.

fundamental attribution error

the tendency for observers, when

analyzing others' behavior, to

underestimate the impact of the

situation and to overestimate the

impact of personal disposition.

internal locus of control

the perception that you control your

own fate.

mere exposure effect

the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases

liking of them.

relative deprivation

the perception that we are worse

off relative to those with whom we

compare ourselves.

self-fulfilling prophecy

a belief

that leads to its own fulfillment.

self-serving bias

a readiness to

perceive oneself favorably.

situational attribution

explaining an event or behavior by attributing it to external factors, rather than internal characteristics or personality traits.

social comparison

the process of evaluating oneself by comparing one's own abilities, opinions, attitudes, and characteristics to those of others.

belief perseverance

clinging to

one's initial conceptions after the

basis on which they were formed

has been discredited.

cognitive dissonance theory

the theory that we act to reduce

the discomfort (dissonance) we

feel when two of our thoughts

(cognitions) are inconsistent. For

example, when we become aware

that our attitudes and our actions

clash, we can reduce the resulting

dissonance by changing our

attitudes.

cognitive load

the amount of information our working memory can process at any given time.

confirmation bias

a tendency to

search for information that supports

our preconceptions and to ignore or

distort contradictory evidence.

ethnocentrism

assuming the superiority of one's ethnic group—is one example of preju-

dice. To believe that a person of another ethnicity is somehow inferior or threatening, to feel

dislike for that person, and to be hesitant to hire or date that person is to be prejudiced.

ingroup bias

the tendency to

favor our own group.

just-world phenomenon

the tendency for people to believe

the world is just and that people

therefore get what they deserve and

deserve what they get.

out-group homogeneity bias

the tendency to perceive members of other groups (outgroups) as more similar to each other than they actually are, while perceiving members of one's own group (ingroup) as more diverse.

stereotype

a generalized

(sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people.

altruism

unselfish regard for the welfare of others

bystander effect

the tendency

for any given bystander to be less

likely to give aid if other bystanders

are present.

central route persuasion

occurs

when interested people focus on

the arguments and respond with

favorable thoughts.

collectivism

giving priority to

the goals of one's group (often

one's extended family or work

group) and defining one's identity

accordingly.

conformity

adjusting our

behavior or thinking to coincide

with a group standard.

deindividuation

the loss of

self-awareness and self-restraint

occurring in group situations that

foster arousal and anonymity.

diffusion of responsibility

the phenomenon where individuals in a group are less likely to take action or feel responsible for helping someone in need, because they assume that someone else will step in and help.

door-in-the-face technique

a compliance tactic where a persuader starts with a large, unreasonable request that they know will be rejected, and then follows up with a smaller, more reasonable request that they are hoping for compliance with.

elaboration likelihood model

explains how people process persuasive messages.

false consensus effect

the tendency to overestimate the extent

to which others share our beliefs

and our behaviors.

foot-in-the-door technique

the tendency for people who have

first agreed to a small request to

comply later with a larger request.

group polarization

the enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through

discussion within the group.

groupthink

the mode of thinking

that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives.

halo effect

a cognitive bias where a person's overall impression of someone or something influences their perception of other, specific traits or qualities.

individualism

giving priority to

one's own goals over group goals

and defining one's identity in terms

of personal attributes rather than

group identifications.

multiculturalism

the acceptance and active support of diverse cultures within a society.

obedience

a person's willingness to comply with orders or commands from someone perceived as having authority.

peripheral route persuasion

occurs when people are influenced

by incidental cues, such as a

speaker's attractiveness.

persuasion

the process of changing someone's beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors through communication.

social debt

a feeling of obligation or indebtedness within a social relationship, often stemming from favors, gifts, or shared experiences.

social facilitation

improved

performance on simple or well-

learned tasks in the presence of

others.

social influence theory

explains how individuals' thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are shaped by the actions and presence of others.

social loafing

the tendency for

people in a group to exert less effort

when pooling their efforts toward

attaining a common goal than

when individually accountable.

social norms

the unwritten rules and expectations that dictate appropriate behavior within a group or society.

social reciprocity norm

an expectation

that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them.

social trap

a situation in which

the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self- interest rather than the good of the group, become caught in mutually destructive behavior.

superordinate goals

shared goals that override differences

among people and require their

cooperation.

denial

Refusing to believe or even perceive painful

realities.

displacement

Shifting sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person.

projection

Disguising one's own threatening impulses by attributing them to others.

rationlization

Offering self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening unconscious reasons for one's actions.

reaction formation

Switching unacceptable impulses into their opposites.

regression

Retreating to a more infantile psychosexual stage, where some psychic energy remains fixated.

repression

in psychoanalytic

theory, the basic defense

mechanism that banishes from

consciousness anxiety-arousing

thoughts, feelings, and memories.

sublimation

Transferring of unacceptable impulses into socially valued motives.

self-actualization

according

to Maslow, one of the ultimate

psychological needs that arises after

basic physical and psychological

needs are met and self-esteem is

achieved; the motivation to fulfill

one's potential.

unconditional positive regard

according to Rogers, an attitude of total acceptance toward

another person.

agreeableness

a personality trait characterized by a tendency to be cooperative, kind, and empathetic towards others, often prioritizing the needs of others and seeking to maintain harmonious relationships. It's one of the "Big Five" personality traits

conscientiousness

a core personality trait that reflects a person's tendency to be organized, responsible, disciplined, and detail-oriented.

emotional stability

the ability to regulate and manage one's emotions effectively, maintaining a balanced and calm state even when facing stress or adversity.

openness to experience

a tendency to embrace new ideas, feelings, and experiences

factor analysis

a statistical

procedure that identifies clusters

of related items (called factors) on

a test; used to identify different

dimensions of performance that

underlie a person's total score.

reciprocal determinism

the interacting influences of

behavior, internal cognition, and

environment.

self-concept

all our thoughts and

feelings about ourselves, in answer

to the question, "Who am I?"

self-efficacy

one's sense of

competence and effectiveness.

self-esteem

one's feelings of high

or low self-worth.

social-cognitive theory

views behavior as influenced by the

interaction between people's traits

(including their thinking) and their

social context.

trait theories of personality

focus on understanding personality by identifying and measuring stable, enduring characteristics or traits that distinguish individuals.

approach-approach

a situation where a person is faced with two or more desirable options, and must choose between them.

approach-avoidance

when an individual is faced with a decision to pursue or avoid something that has advantages and disadvantages.

arousal theory

people are motivated to maintain an optimal level of physiological and psychological arousal.

avoidance-avoidance

a situation where a person is faced with two undesirable or unpleasant choices.

boredom susceptibility

the extent to which an individual tends to experience boredom or lacks stimulation

disinhibition

the loosening or weakening of normal restraints or inhibitions, leading to behaviors that might be seen as impulsive, risky, or socially inappropriate.

drive-reduction theory

the idea

that a physiological need creates an

aroused tension state (a drive) that

motivates an organism to satisfy

the need.

hunger

the complex drive that motivates individuals to seek food and engage in eating behaviors.

experience seeking

a personality trait characterized by a preference for varied, novel, complex, and intense sensations and experiences.

external factors

stimuli or forces outside of an individual that drive, direct, or sustain their behavior.

extrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior to receive

promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment.

ghrelin

Ghrelin, often called the "hunger hormone," plays a significant role in various psychological aspects, including mood, stress response, and reward-seeking behaviors.

homeostasis

a tendency to

maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level.

hormones

chemical messengers

that are manufactured by the endocrine glands travel through the bloodstream and affect other tissues.

instinct

a complex, unlearned

behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species.

intrinsic motivation

a desire to

perform a behavior effectively for

its own sake.

leptin

a 167-amino-acid protein hormone produced primarily by adipose tissue that acts on specific receptors in the hypothalamus to decrease appetite and increase energy expenditure.

Lewin's Motivational Conflict Theory

explains how individuals are motivated to resolve conflicts arising from opposing forces in their lives.

motivation

a need or desire that

energizes and directs behavior

satiety

the feeling of being full and satisfied after eating food.

self-determination theory

suggests that humans have three fundamental psychological needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness.

sensation-seeking theory

a personality trait characterized by a strong need for varied, novel, and intense sensory experiences, as well as a willingness to take risks to achieve such experiences.

thrill/adventure seeking

a subscale of sensation seeking, a personality trait characterized by a desire for novel, intense, and varied experiences.

Yerkes-Dodson law

the principle

that performance increases with

arousal only up to a point, beyond

which performance decreases.

anger

a negative feeling state, typically characterized by antagonism towards a specific person or situation perceived as causing harm or injustice.

broaden-and-build theory

experiencing positive emotions like joy, interest, and contentment expands an individual's thought-action repertoire and builds enduring personal resources.

disgust

a fundamental emotional response characterized by revulsion or intense dislike towards something perceived as offensive, potentially harmful, or morally unacceptable.

display rules

the socially learned expectations and norms about how, when, and to what extent emotions should be expressed in different situations.

elicitors

the stimuli or triggers that evoke or bring about a specific emotional response.

emotion

a complex psychological state involving conscious mental reactions, strong feelings, and physiological and behavioral changes.

fear

a basic emotion triggered by a perceived threat, whether real or imagined, that can evoke a range of physical and emotional responses.