Studied by 5 people
Natural Evil
Evil caused by means of a force outside of the control of a free-will agent. e.g volcanic eruption, floods, earthquakes.
Moral Evil
Evil caused as a result of the actions of a free-will agent. e.g. murder, bullying.
An example of when moral and natural evil are blurred.
The Boxing Day Tsunami (2004). The results of a natural evil (tsunami) were worsened by the moral evils of classism and poverty forcing hundreds of people to build poorly structured homes on low-lying land. These people were more vulnerable to the tsunami.
When could it be argued that moral evils are actually natural evils?
The effects of genetics causing violence. Biological and chemical mechanisms - can a human really be held accountable if our biochemistry determines our actions?
The Qualities of The God of Classical Theism.
One = no other similar being.
Creator ex nihlo = there is nothing that God did not create.
Omnipotent = all-powerful
Omniscient = all-knowing
Omnibenevolent = all-loving
Personal = God is not an indifferent, impersonal force, he is a being with a personality
Morally Perfect = God only performs good acts
Omnipresent = all present
The Epicurean Paradox
According to this paradox, the following claims cannot all be true :
God is supremely good
God is omnipotent
God is omniscient
evil exists
What kind of argument is the Epicurean Paradox?
A priori deductive argument.
Inconsistent Triad
Developed by J.L Mackie. Expands on the problem of evil. A challenge to 'ordinary theism'.
Argues that three propositions - God's omnipotence, God's omnibenevolence and the existence of evil - cannot exist simultaneously, as if two are true, the third must be false.
'Evil and Omnipotence' 1955
The work in which J.L Mackie introduced the inconsistent triad.
J.L Mackie Quote
'The Paradox of Omnipotence has shown that God's omnipotence must in any case be restricted.'
The Evidential Problem of Evil
Developed by William Rowe (1931-2015). The empirical evidence of the existent of evil and suffering shows it is improbable God exists.
'Justified Evils' as defined by William Rowe.
Accepting that God may justifiably not intervene to stop evil on 2 conditions.
1 - instances of evil that God could have prevented but chose not to as a greater good came from it.
2 - instances of evil that God could have prevented but chose not because some evil equally bad, or worse, would have resulted from it.
'Unjustified Evil' as defined by William Rowe.
Evils which do not appear to meet Rowe's conditions of a 'justified evil'. The Holocaust, Rwanda genocide, ivory trade. Both excess human and animal suffering.
Rowe argues that, due to this excess of human suffering, God is either cruel or non-existent.
Fawn In The Forest
In a distant forest, lightning strikes a dead tree, causing a forest fire. A fawn becomes trapped in the fire and is horribly burned. It lies suffering with its injuries for days before it dies with no one aware or able to do anything about it.
William Rowe's example of the intense human/animal suffering apparent in the world, indicating a lack of a (omnibenevolent/potent) God.
'The Holocaust of The Children'
Gregory S. Paul's (1954-present) argument that the huge number of premature deaths indicates the lack of a God.
Why would the God of classical theism not prevent the deaths of billions of innocent helpless beings?
Gregory S. Paul Quote
'It very probably is not possible to reconcile the Christian concept of a pacific creator with the state of the universe'.
Theodicy
"the justification of God"- attempt to reconcile the traditional view of God with the evil in the world
St Augustine
354-430 CE. Was a Roman African bishop who had a huge influence on the development of theology in the Roman Catholic Church.
Privation
The absence of a quality that is usually present.
Evil as a consequence of sin (Augustine)
God's creation was originally free from evil - it is a fact of the created world that God has caused all things into existence ex nihlo and through decay and corruption, they will all eventually lapse back into nothingness. Turning about from God - via freewill - beings about evil. As the gift of free will necessarily entail the concept of moral responsibility, it is humans that are ultimately responsible for sin and, consequently, evil - not God. Humans voluntarily choose sin. Man is mutable (changeable) because he is made out of nothing - he is a contingent being with free-will that can choose to turn away from God and create evil, which is parasitic and privative.
Evil as a Privation (Augustine)
God did not create evil, as evil is not a substance in itself (Augustine was influenced by Plato on this point). It is the absence of good (privatio boni). God is perfect and created a perfect world. It is from the voluntary actions of free beings that evil becomes present.
The Fall of Human Beings & Creation
Adam's choice to eat the apple caused him to leave his initial state of perfection. As an ancestor of all of humankind, all of humanity is therefore implicated in his sin. They are present in his loins and are born in into sin. Adam's sin is passed on through sex, a sign of our concupiscence (intense longing away from God and towards the world, characterized by sex).
The Cross Overcomes Evil, Soul Deciding (Augustine)
God is merciful and offers hope to Christians who turn to God. Christ's death on the cross fills the void caused by sin. Even though we suffer pain and death for our sins, God being sinless accepted, as a man, pain and death on the Cross for our salvation.
St Augustine Quote
''The almighty god....would never permit the existence of evil among His works, if He were not so omnipotent and good that He can bring good out of evil. For what is that which we call evil but the absence of good?''
1 Peter 4:19 (Relevant to St Augustine)
'In our suffering, we share in the suffering of Christ so in heaven we may share in His glory''
How does Augustine justify the existence of Moral Evil?
It is a consequence of our free-will, as part of God's perfect creation is that we can choose or reject God.
How does Augustine justify the existence of Natural Evil?
The fault of humanity, the Fall destroyed the order in the Garden, allowing evil in the world. God allowed it to stay as it added to the aesthetic pattern in the universe.
Literalist
Interpreting the Bible in a literal sense, every word is taken at face value, no interpretation.
The Fall
The events of Genesis chapter 3. Adam and Eve face God's punishment for disobeying his divine command.
Evolutionary Theory
The scientific theory that life developed from simple to complex organisms.
Free-will
The concept that humans have the ability to choose freely between good and evil.
How must Augustine's Theodicy interpret The Creation/The Fall in order to be plausible?
It must be interpreted literally, a literalist Christian believer would be able to see his theodicy as plausible and rooted in scripture.
Scientific error in Augustine's Theodicy #1
Challenges the notion that all humans descended from Adam & Eve and inherited Adam's sin.
Earlier primates of the genus Australopithecus, some 4 million years ago, are replaced by the genus Homo some two million years ago, from which the lineage of modern Homo Sapiens descends. Scientists speak of the gradual emergence of consciousness and self-reflection. There was no ''true'' first human being which is qualitatively was superior to his forebears.
Scientific error in Augustine's Theodicy #2
The bottleneck of human reproduction could not have been as small as two - this would not account for all the genetic differences - it would need to be a 'bottleneck' of at least a 1000 humans.
Scientific error in Augustine's Theodicy #3
Looking at genes we fine that they trace back to different times in our past. Using this information, we can see that the single female and male ancestors that we trace back to lived thousands of years apart. 'Adam & Eve' would have lived thousands of years apart.
Scientific error in Augustine's Theodicy #4
Contradiction of perfect order becoming chaotic - geological and biological evidence suggests the contrary. Evolutionary Theory uses the premise of natural selection - order is found through trial and error, beings become more 'refined'.
Moral Error in Augustine's theory #1
If a perfect world had been created, then how is it possible that there was knowledge of good and evil necessary for the free will of humanity? This implies that evil already existed and therefore can only be the responsibility of God.
God is part of the created order. This suggests that God knew the angels would rebel/humans would fall and had a place of punishment for them already prepared.
Moral Error in Augustine's theory #2
How can God be all-loving and the creator of Hell? How can an all-loving God save some but condemn others?
Moral Error in Augustine's theory #3
Perfection cannot change. This implies a flaw in God's creation of angels - why would rebellion occur in a perfect created order?
If humans began perfect, they need not have sinned. If they do, they were not flawless and God must share the responsibility of their fall.
An omniscient God knew in advance Humans would fall - so he has to bear responsibility for the existence of evil as a lack of good in creation.
Logical Error in Augustine's Theory #1
Augustine argued that God created the world perfectly and then it went wrong. However, this would mean evil created itself out of nothing, which is logically impossible. For example, for Adam & Eve to freely choose evil, they must have had knowledge of good and evil. This implies evil already existed in the created world.
Logical error in Augustine's Theory #2
A perfect human being would be able to sin but choose not to, therefore A+E were not perfect, which is God's responsibility.
The Extent to which the classical form of the Problem of Evil is a problem for religion - IT IS
It demonstrates the illogical nature of faith in an omnipotent and loving God.
It has further support from the evidential problem of evil that shows God is improbable.
It is a problem stated & restated by many philosophers since the Ancient Greeks.
No theodicy has adequately and coherently answered this paradox.
The Extent to which the classical form of the Problem of Evil is a problem for religion - IT IS NOT
Mackie's triad does not account for other relevant theistic qualities.
Not conclusive - makes God less likely, not impossible.
Paul's response is emotional rather than rational. God's perspective may be different.
The degree to which the modern problem of evil arguments are effective in proving God's non-existence - THEY ARE
Mackie's triad shows clearly & simply how no more than 2 features can co-exist.
Paul's evidence of the quantity & gravity of suffering is conclusive.
There is no theodicy that can excuse God from the suffering of children in Paul's argument.
The degree to which the modern problem of evil arguments are effective in proving God's non-existence - THEY ARE NOT
God is not subject to reason as are corporeal creatures.
Faith allows a believer to accept God's character regardless of evil.
The problem shows a simplistic view of good and evil.
Whether Augustine type theodicies are relevant in the 21st century - YES THEY ARE
Based upon scripture which was given by God for all people regardless of time.
Theodicy accords closely with scripture & justifies all of God's characteristics.
It is accepted by the church as traditional teaching & guards against hersey.
God is unchanging (Malachi 3:6) & so it is irrelevant what century it is.
Whether Augustine type theodicies are relevant in the 21st century - THEY ARE NOT
They contradict a modern understanding of science, which is evidence-based.
Modern theology doesn't require a literal interpretation of scripture.
Only the Roman Catholic church reveres Augustine in this manner.
There are more modern theodicies, such as the free-will defence, which work better.
The extent to which Augustine's Theodicy succeeds as a defence of the God of Classical Theism - IT DOES
It keeps in mind all of the theistic qualities of God without dismissing evil.
It gives a credible explanation of evil that is demonstrated by effective analogy.
It includes Christ's salvation on the cross which is consistent with Christ's teaching.
It does not diminish God's power over humanity.
The extent to which Augustine's Theodicy succeeds as a defence of the God of Classical Theism - IT DOES NOT
It fails on scientific, moral and logical grounds.
The definition of evil is an exercise in semantics rather than a justification.
It makes salvation seem arbitrary if not based upon human good-deeds.
It is too concerned with avoiding heresy to be a coherent account of God
Epistemic Distance
A distance measured in terms of knowledge rather than in space or time.
Soul-Making
A process by which the soul is developing towards spiritual perfection by gaining the wisdom to always make correct moral choices.
Irenaen Type Theodicy
The presence of evil in the world was a deliberate action of an omnibenevolent God who wanted his creations to develop the qualities that would make them spiritually perfect.
God stays at an epistemic distance so we can develop into his likeness.
Irenaen Type Theodicy : Part 1 (The Creation of the World)
God deliberately created humans imperfect, because he made humanities task in life to develop into God's perfection.
''Let us make man in my image and after in my likeness'' Genesis 1:26
The first part ''man in my image'' means God made humanity possessing potential qualities of God's perfection e.g. a sense of morality.
The second part ''and after in my likeness'' means that humanity can actualise these perfect Godly qualities through the moral dilemmas faced in everyday life. through epistemic distance, we can freely choose to develop into his likeness.
Craftsman Analogy
Irenaeus created this analogy to illustrate part one of his theodicy.
God is a craftsman working with human beings as his material and suggests that humans should freely allow God to mould them into His perfection.
Irenaeus Type Theodicy : Part 2 (Why God Allows Moral Evil)
In order to allow us to develop into his likeness, he had to give us free will. This free-will allows us to be morally evil - if God were to step in and prevent this free-will, it would undermine human freedom and our potential to develop into his likeness.
Without moral evil, human decisions in life would have no real value and virtues/second-order goods could not have developed.
Second-order Goods
Moral goods that result from a response to evil e.g. courage and compassion
'Evil and the God of Love' - John Hick
Developed on the Irenaeus Theodicy by describing it as a 'soul-making' theodicy. He says that in order for humans to be truly free, human beings had to be made at an epistemic distance from God.
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