sociology

What is a concept?

A tool that permits us to share meaning.

Why can concepts be difficult to work with?

They can have different meanings depending on the person, culture, place, or time.

What is operationalization?

The process of making an abstract concept measurable.

What do quantitative methods typically use?

Hypotheses.

What do qualitative methods typically use?

Research questions.

What is a hypothesis?

A testable statement or prediction about the relationship between variables.

What is the null hypothesis?

The hypothesis that there is no relationship between variables.

What is a directional hypothesis?

A hypothesis that predicts the direction of a relationship between variables.

What is an independent variable?

The variable that is introduced or changed to determine its effect on another variable.

What is a dependent variable?

The variable whose outcome is being measured.

What is participant observation?

A research method where the researcher observes people while participating in their social setting.

What is a case study?

An in-depth study of one person, group, organization, event, or situation.

What is secondary analysis?

Using data that was previously collected by someone else.

What is validity?

How accurately a measure measures what it is supposed to measure.

What is reliability?

How consistent or repeatable a measurement is.

What is a stratified sample?

A population is divided into groups, and members are randomly selected from those groups.

What is a random sample?

A sample where members of the population have an equal or known chance of being selected.

What is a systematic sample?

Selecting participants using a fixed interval or pattern from a population list.

What is an ethical requirement of research?

Participation must be voluntary, participants should not be harmed, and they should be informed of risks.

What largely influences human behavior according to sociologists?

Social forces.

What is the sociological imagination?

The ability to understand how history and biography influence our lives.

Who developed the concept of sociological imagination?

C. Wright Mills.

What does microsociology study?

Small-scale social interactions and everyday interactions between people.

What does macrosociology study?

Large-scale social structures and processes, such as institutions, economies, and social systems.

How is sociology different from psychology?

Sociology focuses on society and social forces, while psychology focuses more on mental processes and individual behavior.

What method does sociology use as a social science?

The scientific method.

What does anthropology primarily study?

The physical, biological, and cultural development of humans.

What is the primary concern of history?

Describing and understanding unique historical events.

What do social workers do?

Apply social science principles to social problems.

Which is NOT a physical science?

Economics.

What are physical sciences?

Sciences that study the physical and natural world, such as chemistry, physics, and astronomy.

Who is known as the father of sociology?

Auguste Comte.

What is Comte's law of human progress?

The idea that societies progress through three stages: theological, metaphysical, and positive.

What happens during the theological stage?

Things are explained through supernatural or religious forces.

What happens during the metaphysical stage?

Things are explained through abstract forces or philosophical ideas.

What happens during the positive stage?

Knowledge comes from observation, experimentation, and comparison.

What did Herbert Spencer apply evolution to?

Human society.

What is social Darwinism?

Applying ideas about evolution and natural selection to human society.

What are social facts?

Social phenomena that exist outside individuals and influence their behavior.

Who developed the concept of social facts?

Émile Durkheim.

What is Verstehen?

Weber's approach of understanding the subjective meanings and motivations behind people's actions.

Who is associated with Verstehen?

Max Weber.

What did Jane Addams create?

Hull House, a settlement house in Chicago.

Who was Jane Addams?

A social reformer and sociologist associated with Hull House and social reform.

What did Talcott Parsons develop?

The general theory of action.

What is structural functionalism?

A theory that examines how parts of society work together to maintain stability.

What are manifest functions?

Intended and recognized consequences of an action or institution.

What are latent functions?

Unintended or unrecognized consequences of an action or institution.

What are dysfunctions?

Consequences that are harmful to a social system.

Who developed the concept of manifest, latent functions, and dysfunctions?

Robert K. Merton.

Which theory views conflict as a permanent feature of social life?

Conflict theory.

What does conflict theory focus on?

Power, inequality, competition, and conflict between groups.

What does exchange theory focus on?

How people make social decisions based on rewards, costs, and benefits.

What does symbolic interactionism focus on?

How people create meaning through social interaction and symbols.

What happened during hyperdifferentiation?

A large proliferation of different sociological theories beyond the original major theories.

Validity vs. Reliability

Validity = accuracy; Reliability = consistency

Micro vs. Macro

Micro = small-scale interactions; Macro = large-scale society

Independent vs. Dependent Variable

Independent = cause/change; Dependent = effect/outcome

Manifest vs. Latent Functions

Manifest = intended; Latent = unintended

Functions vs. Dysfunctions

Functions = consequences that contribute to society; Dysfunctions = harmful consequences

Sociology vs. Psychology

Sociology = society/social forces; Psychology = mental processes/individual behavior

Quantitative vs. Qualitative

Quantitative = hypotheses/numerical data; Qualitative = research questions/meanings and experiences

Micro vs. Macro example

"How do college students talk to their friends?" = Micro; "How does the cost of college affect students?" = Macro