BIOL 1406 exam 2 chapters 5-7 Collin college

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93 Terms

1
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define macromolecules. name them

large molecules composed of thousands of covalently connected atoms

2
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define polymers? monomers

polymers- long molecule consisting of many similar building blocks

monomers- small building-block molecules

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what is dehydration reaction

occurs when 2 monomers bond together through the loss of a water molecules

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hydrolysis

polymers are disassembled to monomers; reaction that is essentially the reverse of dehydration reaction

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what are carbohydrates? what is a monosaccharide? what is its use to a cell

carbs- serve as fuel and building material (1st thing body goes to)

monosaccharide- simplest/single sugars; glucose is the most common

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what is the general molecular formula for a monosaccharide

CH2O

7
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what is a disaccharide? glycosidic linkage. know sucrose examples

disaccharide- formed when a dehydration and reaction joins 2 monosaccharides

glycosidic linkage- covalent bond

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what are polysaccharides? know starch, glycogen, cellulose, and chitin

polysaccharides- polymers of sugars (many), have storage and structural roles

starch- plants store gluslose (bread, pasta rice, potatos)

glycogen- animals store glucose

cellulose- makes up the cell wall of plants

chitin- found in the exoskeleton of arthropods

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how are polymers with glucose different from B glucose

polymers with a glucose are helical

polymers with B are straight

-form microfibrils, which form strong building materials for plants

10
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what compounds makes up the diverse groups, liquids

fats & oils

phospholipids

steroids

waxes

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what are fats constructed of? what is an ester linkage? triacylglyerol?

fats- glycerol and fatty acids

fatty acids- consists of a carboxyl group attached to a long carbon skeleton

12
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What are saturated fats? Unsaturated fats? What are the properties of each? Where are they found? Which are healthier?

satured fats- maximum number of hydrogen atom possible and no double bonds; fiybd ub bytter

unsaturated fatty acids- have one or more double bonds; found in plant/fish oils; healthier

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what is meant by trans fats

more than saturated fats to cardiovascular disease

14
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define essential fatty acids. examples

include the meta-e fatty acids, required for normal growth

15
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what is the major function of fats

energy source

16
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what makes up phospholipids? what are they the major component of

two fatty acids and a phosphate group are attached to glycerol

-two fatty acids tails are hydrophobic but the phosphate group and its attachements form a hydropilic head

major component of all cell membranes

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what are steroids? why is cholesterol important

sterioids- lipids characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings

cholesterol- found in animal cell membrane, importatnt steroid, high level in the blook may contribute to cardiovascular disease

18
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how much of a cell is protein? what are some functions

accounts for more than 50% of the dry mass of most cells

functions- structural support, storage, transport, cellular communications, movement, defese

19
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define enzymes

type of protein that acts as a catalyst to speed up chemical reactions

20
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what is the relationship between proteins and polypeptides

polypeptides- unbranched polymers build from the same set of 20 amino acids

protein- biologically functions molecule that consists of one or more polypeptides

21
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what are amino acids? what is the significance of the R group? how many amino acids are there

amino acids= organic molecules with carboxyl and amino groups

-R group- differ in their properties due to differing sides chains (cariable group)

how many- 20

22
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what is peptide bond? Significance of carboxyl and amino groups

amino acids are liked by these

polypeptide is a polymer of amino acids

each polypeptide has a unique linear sequence of amino acids

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what determines the function of a protein

shape -> structure -> function

24
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what are the 4 levels of protein structure? describe them. example

1. primary structure of a protein is its unique sequence of amino acids

2. secondary structure found in most proteins, consists of coids and fold int he polypeptide chain (H bonds)

3. tertiary structure determined by interactions amoung various side chains (R groups)

4. quaternary structure results when a protein consists of multiple polypeptide chains

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how is hemoglobin affected in sickle-cell disease

globular protein consisting of 4 polypeptides: 2 alpha and 2 beta chains

sickle-cell disease

26
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define denaturation? what factors cause it

loss of a protein natives structure

-denautres protein is biologically inactive

27
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what role do chaperonins play

proteins molecules that assist the proper folding of other proteins

28
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how is X-ray crystallography used

determine proteins structure

29
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what are nucleic acids? what is nucleotide? what are its 3 parts

nucleic acid- genes are made of DNA, made of monomers called nucleoides store infor and help transmit it

nucletoides- polynucleotide is made of monomers; consists of nitrogenous base, pentose sugar, one of mroe phosphate groupf

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what are the 2 types of nucleic acids?

deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

-provides info for replication

-will direct synthesis of proteins

ribonucleic acid (RNA)

31
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describe the plasma membrane as a fluid mosaic

boundary that separates living cell from its surroundings

32
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who is credited the fluid mosaic models

S. J. Singer & G. Nicolson

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what did freeze-fracture studies reveal

splits a membrane along the middle of the phopholipid bilayer

34
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describe the fluidity oft the plasma membrane

phospholipids in the plasma membrane can move within the bilayer, most of the lipids, and some proteins, drift laterally

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what role does temperature play

cool- membranes switch fro fluid to solid

36
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difference between unsaturated and saturated fatty acids

saturated- solid at room temp

unsaturated- liquid at room temp; double bonded

37
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what is the role of cholesterol

vital role in secretion of several other vital enzymes and hormones

38
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what accounts for variation in lipid composition

39
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what is the role of proteins

catalyse reactions in our bodies, transport molecules such as oxygen, keep us healthy as part of the immune system and transmit messages from cell to cell

40
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describe peripheral and integral proteins

peripheral- bound to the surface of membrane

integral- penetrate hydrophobic core

41
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what that the 6 major functions of membrane proteins

transport

enzymatic activity

signal transduction

cell-cell recognition

intercellular jointing

attachement to the cytoskeleton and ECM

42
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what is the role of membrane carbohydrates

bonded to lipids

43
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what is the responsible for selective permeability

membrane structure

44
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what molecules are permeable through the membrane

small polar molecules

45
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describe transport proteins

allow passage hydrophilic substances across the membrane

46
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what are aquaporins

facilitate passage of water

47
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describe passive transport. diffusion.

substance across a membrane with no energy investment

48
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what is a concentration gradient

regions along which the density of chemical substance increases or decreases

49
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what is osmosis? what does it have to do with solute concentration

diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane; does this until concentration is equal on both sides

50
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describe tonicity

ability of a surrounding solution to cause a cell to gain or lose water

51
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define isotonic, hypertonic, and hypotonic solutions

isotonic- no net water movement across plasma membrane

hypertonic- cell loses water

hypotonic- cell gain water

52
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what is osmoregulation? the paramecium contractile vacuole

control of solute concentrations and water balance

paramecium- vacuole that acts as a pump

53
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describe plant cells that are turgid, flaccid

turgid- plant cell in a hypnotic solution sells until wall opposes uptake

flaccid- no net movement of water into the cell; plant wilts

54
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what happens to a plant cell during plasmolysis

lose water; membrane pulls away from wall

55
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what is facility diffusion? role of channel proteins

transport proteins speed the passive movement of colecules across the plasma membrane

provide corridors that allow a specific molecule or ion to corss the membrane

56
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what is the role of ion channels

open or close in response to a gated channels

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what is active transport? sodium-potassium pump example

uses energy to move solutes against their gradients

allows cells to maintain concentration gradients that differ from surroundings

58
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define exocytosis & endocytosis

exocytosis- transport vesicles migrate to the membrane, fuse with it, release their contents

endocytosis- cells take in macromolecules by forming vesicles from the plasma membrane

59
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what the the 3 types of endocytosis

phagocytosis

-cellular eating

pinocytosis

-cellular drinking

receptor

-mediated endocytosis

60
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how are cells the fundamental units of life

all organisms are made of cells

61
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how does the light microscope work/ what re the limits

first microscope to visualize cells, (LM),light transmitted thorught the image and then throught the glass lenses, len then bend and the image is magnified; only allows 1,000 times

62
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define magnification, resolution & constract in microscopy

magnification- how long image made

reolution- measure of the clarity of the image

contrast- visible difference in parts of the sample

63
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how do electron microscopes work? what are the differences between SEM & TEMs

(EMs), sub cellar study structures

(SEMs). bean of electrols onto the surfact of a specimen, images look 3D

64
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what is cell fractionation and how is it used

takes cells apart and separates the major organelles from one another

65
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Compare basic features of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Know terms cytosol, nucleoid, nucleus, cytoplasm

cytosol- semifluid substance (fluid part)

prokaryotic cells- no cucleus, DNA is unbounded relgion called the nucleoid, no membrane-bound organelles, cytoplasm bound by the plasma membrane

rukarytoic cells- DNA in a nucleus that is bounded by a membranouse, membrane bound organelles, crtoplams, larger than prokaryotic

66
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what does the plasma membrane do? what is it made up of

selective barrier that allows sufficient passage of oxygen, nutrients, and wste to service the volume of every cell; is a doulb layer of phosholipids

67
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what limits cells size

Fragility of cell membrane

68
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describe the nucleus, nuclear membrane, chromosomes, chromatin, nucleolus

nucleus- contains most of the cells genes, usually the most conspicuous organelle

nuclear membrane- double membrane; each membrane consists of a lipid bilayer

chromosomes- DNA is organized into discrete units

chromatic- DNA and proteins of chromosomes

nucleolus- locat4ed within the nucleus and is the site of RNA synthesis

69
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what do ribosomes do and where are they found

carry out protein synthesis in 2 locations; found in the cytosol (free ribosomes), outside of the endoplasmic reticulum or nuclear envelope (bound ribosomes)

70
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what are the components of the endomembrane system and what do they do

do- regulates protein traffic and performs metalbolic functions in the cell

comonents: nuclear envelope, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vacuoles, plasma membrane

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what does the endoplasmic reticulum make

responsible for the assembly of many proteins

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how are the rough and smooth ER different

smooth- lacks ribosomes

rough- studded with ribosomes

73
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what are the functions of the smooth ER

synthesizes lipids, metabolized carbohydrates, detoxifies drugs & poisons, stores calcium ions

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what are the functions of the rough ER? transport cesicles

has bound ribosomes with secrete proteins bonded to carbs, distributes proteins surrounded by membranes, membrane factory for the cell

75
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describe the Golgi apparatus and its functions

function: shipping & receiving center ( modifies products of the ER, manufactures certain macromolecules, sorts and packages materials into transport vesicles

describe: consists of flattened membranous sacs called cisternae

76
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what do lysosomes do? role in phagocytosis?

lysosomes- digestive compartments , can hydrolyze proteins, fats, polysaccharides, nucleci acids

phagocytosis- food vacuole and digests the molecules, recycle cells own organelles and macromolecule

77
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describe vacuoles. food, contractile, and central

vacuoles- plant & fungal cells; derived from of reticulum and Golgi apparatus

food vacuoles- formed by phagocytosis

contractile vacuoles- found in many freshwater protists, pump excess water out of cells

central vacuoles- found in many mature plant cells, hold organic compounds and water

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what is the relationship between the mitochondria and the chloroplasts

change energy from one form to another

79
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describe the origin of them. explain the endosymbiont theroy

mitochondria and chloroplasts have similarities with bacteria; enveloped by a double membrane, contain free ribosomes, and circular DNA molecules, grow and reproduce somewhat independently in cells

endosymbiont theory- eukaryotic cells engulfed a nonphotosynthetic prokaryotic cell, host cell, and endosymbiont merged into a single organism with mitochondrion, one cell may take up photosynthetic prokaryotic

80
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know mitochondria structure, cristae, mitochondrial matrix and their role

cristae- smooth outer membrane, inner membrane folded

mitochondrial matrix-inne membrane creates 2 compartments

catalyzed in the mitochondrial matrix, large surface area for enzymes that synthesize ATP

81
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know chloroplasts structure, thylakoids, geranum, storma, term plastid

Chloroplahts- capture light energy, found in leaves and green organs

thylakoids- membranous sacs

gernum- thylakoids are stacked to form you

stoma- internal fluid

plastids- one of a group of plant organelles

82
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what role do peroxisomes play

produce hydrogen peroxide and convert it to water

83
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describe the role of the cytoskeleton. what 3 fibers make it up

network of fibers that organizes structures and activities in the cell

fibers: microtubules (thickest), microfilaments (thinnest), intermediate filaments (diameters in a middle range)

84
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function of microtubules. centrosome, centrioles

microtubuels- hollow rods; functions: shaping cells, guiding movement of organelles, separate​ chromosomes during cell division

85
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describe cilia and flagella. how do they move? role of basal body, dynein protein

microtubules control the beating of cilia and flagella locomotor appendages of come cells; they differ in their beating patterns

basal body- anchors cilium or flagellum (9+0)

dynein- dirives the bending movements of cilium or flagellum

86
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What makes up microfilaments. Their role in cell. Muscles with myosin? In pseudopodia? Cytoplasmic streaming?

microfilaments- solid rods built as a twisted double chain; bear tension/ resisting pulling forces within the cell

myosic- function in cellular motility contain this protein

pseudopodia= cellular extensions

cytoplasmic streaming- circular flow of cytoplasm within cells

87
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role of intermediate filaments

support cell shape and fix organelles in place

88
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know extracellular structures

cell wall of plants, extracellular matrix of animals cells, intercellular junctions

89
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role of cell wall. what organisms have it? what makes it up

plant cells only

-prokaryotes, fungi and some protists also have thins

-cell wall, middle lamella, secondary cell wall

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role of plasmodesmata

channels between adjacent plant cells

91
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describe the ECM in animals. protein names

bind to receptor proteins in the plasma membrane (called integrins)

function of EMS: support, adhesion, movement, regulation

92
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know 4 cell junctions. and their roles in plants and animals

plasmodesmata

-perforate plant cell walls

tight junctions

-preventing leakage of extracellular fluid desmosomes

-fasten cells together into strong sheets

gap junctions

-provide cytoplasmic channels between adjacent cells

93
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What are the bases in DNA & RNA? what is meant by complementary base pairing

In DNA, there are four different bases: adenine (A) and guanine (G) are the larger purines. Cytosine (C) and thymine (T) are the smaller pyrimidines. ... Three of these are the same as in DNA: adenine, guanine, and cytosine. RNA contains uracil (U) instead of thymine (T).

pairing; DNA(=) A=T; G=C RNA(=) A=U; G=C