AP Psychology

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118 Terms

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regression to the mean

extremes in measurement tend to eventually return to an average level

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attribution theory

how we explain the behaviors of others

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dispositional attribution

behavior is due to aspects of a person’s personality

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situational attribution

behavior is due to aspects of a person’s environment

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fundamental attribution theory

tendency to make dispositional attributions when situational attributions are more accurate

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ultimate attribution error

tendency to view causes for behavior with bias based on whether the behavior is ours or that of others

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defensive attribution/just world phenomenon

tendency to assume that when bad things happen to people, they brought it upon themselves

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cognitive dissonance

the feeling of conflict when our actions and our attitudes don’t match up

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compliance

getting other people to do what we want

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foot-in-the-door technique

getting someone to agree to something small increases the likelihood of them agreeing to something larger at a later time

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door-in-the-face technique

making a large request (refused) leads to a higher likelihood of success when something smaller is requested

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Stanly Milgram

the study of electric shocks on learning (teacher, student)

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conformity

changing our behavior to match the behavior of others

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chameleon effect

the unconscious mimicking of behavior

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normative social influence

changing behavior in order to gain acceptance or avoid rejection

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informational social influence

changing behaviors based on the trust of the expertise/credibility of others

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Soloman Asch

the line comparison task study

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central route to persuasion

when the content of the message is what convinces someone to act in a certain way

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peripheral route to persuasion

when superfluous details of a message are what convinces someone to act a certain way

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social facilitation

the presence of others enhances performance on mastered tasks

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social impairment

the presence of others hinders performance on difficult tasks

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social loafing

tendency for people working together to put out less effort than they would if they were working alone

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deindividuation

losing inhibitions due to anonymity of being in a group

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group polarization

enhancement of a group’s shared attitude through discussion

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groupthink

erroneous thinking that results from a group of people who usually agree with one another making decisions

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prejudice

an unjustified attitude toward a group of people (cognitive)

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discrimination

actions taken based on prejudice (behavioral)

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social cognitive theory

improperly formed or used schemas cause prejudice

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social identity theory

comparisons between ourselves and others cause prejudice

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social catigorization

recognizing groups of people based on some criterion

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social identification

recognizing which groups we belong to (ingroups and outgroups)

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social comparison

making judgements about ingroups and outgroups

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positive distinctiveness

thinking and feeling favorably about oneself

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ingroup bias

preferring others who are similar to oneself

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outgroup discrimination

thinking unfavorably about others who are dissimilar about oneself

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scapegoating

unjustifiably taking out negative emotions on another group

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approach-approach conflict

when two options are equally appealing

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avoidance-avoidance conflict

when two options are equally unappealing

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approach-avoidance conflict

when a single option has some appealing aspects and some unappealing aspects

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frustration-aggression principle

obstacles to achieving goals cause frustration which in turn increases the likelihood of aggressive behavior

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social trap

when decisions made based on personal interests rather than the best outcome for the group cause an unpleasant outcome for all

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superordinate goals

shared goals between conflicting parties that force cooperation

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mere exposure affect

proximity increases familiarity and liking

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Robert Sternberg

triangular theory of love: intimate love, commitment love, passionate love

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consummate love

a love embodying all three from the triangle theory of love

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altruism

selfless concern for the well-being of others

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bystander affect

the likelihood of giving aid decreases when other people are present

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social exchange theory

decisions about whether to help someone in need are based on a personal cost-benefit analysis

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reciprocity norm

helping another person is expected if they have helped us in the past

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social responsibility norm

helping another person is expected whenever possible because it is the right thing to do

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Phillip Zimbardo

Stanford prison experiment - studied the effect of assigned social roles and expectations of behavior

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prototype

another term for schema - a mental conception of something

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categories

a hierarchy for mental organization (superordinate, basic, subordinate)

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confirmation bias

the tendency to only accept information that supports a pre-existing belief

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belief perseverence

clinging to initial conclusions, even after they have been discredited

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framing

the way in which information is presented; may alter cognition about the information

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insight

the mental experience of reaching a solution to a problem

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algorithm

a method for problem-solving that involves examining every possible solution; guarantees accuracy, but can be time consuming

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heuristic

a method for problem solving that involves using a rule to eliminate possible answers; faster process, but can be error-prone

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availability heuristic

judging the likelihood of something based on how easily it comes to mind

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representativeness heuristic

judging the likelihood of something based on how well it fits in a prototype/schema

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convergent thinking

the type of mental processing necessary to solve a problem that has a single answer

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divergent thinking

the type of mental processing necessary to solve a problem that has multiple possible answers

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mental set

a common problem-solving error that involves solving a problem in a familiar way based on past experiences (3 jugs problem)

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fixation

inability to solve a problem due to a lack of necessary perspective

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functional fixation

inability to see the uses of an object beyond its originally intended purpose

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phonemes

the most basic sounds that make up a language

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morphemes

basic sound elements of a language that have meaning; made up of phonemes

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grammar

the rules for using a language

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semantics

the use of words to accurately and meaningfully convey an idea

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syntax

the correct arrangement of word order for a language

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critical period

a limited window of developmental opportunity during which a particular skill (language) ins most easily learned

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babbling stage

speaking includes phonemes, but no application of words or grammar

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holophrastic stage

the use of one word to convey meaning

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telegraphic stage

the use of two meaningfully connected words to convey meaning

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syntax stage

the use of words that includes the beginnings of grammatical rules and beyond

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B.F. Skinner

Operant Learning Theory - language is learned through imitation and consequences that follow

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Noam Chomsky

inborn universal grammar - the capacity to learn language is innate (LAD)

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Benjamin Whorf

linguistic determinism - the language we use and the ways that we think about the world are connected

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Alfred Binet

created the original IQ test comparing chronological age to mental age

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Lewis Terman

created the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test

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David Wechsler

created WPPSI, WISC, WAIS

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Charles Spearman

believed that the most accurate measure of intelligence was a single, overall score embodying all of their intellectual skills

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savant syndrome

disabled people having one ability that surpasses the general population

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Howard Gardner

8 multiple ways to be intelligent

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Robert Sternberg

3 ways to be intelligent

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achievement test

an assessment that measures one’s accumulated knowledge about a subject/topic

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aptitude test

an assessment that predicts one’s success in some future endeavor or task

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reliability

the extent to which an assessment yields consistent results

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validity

the extent to which an assessment yields consistent results

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stereotype threat

a self confirming concern that one will be evaluated on a negative stereotype

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flynn effect

a recorded increase in average IQ that occurs with each new generation

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down syndrome

a genetic cause of intellectual disability; caused by a trisomy of chromosome 21

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fragile X syndrome

a genetic cause of intellectual disability; caused by mutation errors on the X chromosome

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Wolfgang Kohler

non-human animal cognition; researched problem-solving strategies of other animals and found that it is pretty similar to humans

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DSM-5

the diagnostic and statistical manual for mental disorders - 5th edition; Encyclopedia of symptoms, causes and Research on all psych disorders

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Aaron Beck

The cognitive triad of depression; negative thoughts about oneself, the world, and the future

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Albert Ellis

rational emotive therapy; the therapist questions and challenges the unrealistic cognition of the client, picking it apart over time

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Suicide

more attempts by women but more completions by men; more in the elderly

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physical dependance

ones biological need for a drug, marked by alterations to the body’s internal chemistry