AP Psychology

regression to the mean

extremes in measurement tend to eventually return to an average level

attribution theory

how we explain the behaviors of others

dispositional attribution

behavior is due to aspects of a person’s personality

situational attribution

behavior is due to aspects of a person’s environment

fundamental attribution theory

tendency to make dispositional attributions when situational attributions are more accurate

ultimate attribution error

tendency to view causes for behavior with bias based on whether the behavior is ours or that of others

defensive attribution/just world phenomenon

tendency to assume that when bad things happen to people, they brought it upon themselves

cognitive dissonance

the feeling of conflict when our actions and our attitudes don’t match up

compliance

getting other people to do what we want

foot-in-the-door technique

getting someone to agree to something small increases the likelihood of them agreeing to something larger at a later time

door-in-the-face technique

making a large request (refused) leads to a higher likelihood of success when something smaller is requested

Stanly Milgram

the study of electric shocks on learning (teacher, student)

conformity

changing our behavior to match the behavior of others

chameleon effect

the unconscious mimicking of behavior

normative social influence

changing behavior in order to gain acceptance or avoid rejection

informational social influence

changing behaviors based on the trust of the expertise/credibility of others

Soloman Asch

the line comparison task study

central route to persuasion

when the content of the message is what convinces someone to act in a certain way

peripheral route to persuasion

when superfluous details of a message are what convinces someone to act a certain way

social facilitation

the presence of others enhances performance on mastered tasks

social impairment

the presence of others hinders performance on difficult tasks

social loafing

tendency for people working together to put out less effort than they would if they were working alone

deindividuation

losing inhibitions due to anonymity of being in a group

group polarization

enhancement of a group’s shared attitude through discussion

groupthink

erroneous thinking that results from a group of people who usually agree with one another making decisions

prejudice

an unjustified attitude toward a group of people (cognitive)

discrimination

actions taken based on prejudice (behavioral)

social cognitive theory

improperly formed or used schemas cause prejudice

social identity theory

comparisons between ourselves and others cause prejudice

social catigorization

recognizing groups of people based on some criterion

social identification

recognizing which groups we belong to (ingroups and outgroups)

social comparison

making judgements about ingroups and outgroups

positive distinctiveness

thinking and feeling favorably about oneself

ingroup bias

preferring others who are similar to oneself

outgroup discrimination

thinking unfavorably about others who are dissimilar about oneself

scapegoating

unjustifiably taking out negative emotions on another group

approach-approach conflict

when two options are equally appealing

avoidance-avoidance conflict

when two options are equally unappealing

approach-avoidance conflict

when a single option has some appealing aspects and some unappealing aspects

frustration-aggression principle

obstacles to achieving goals cause frustration which in turn increases the likelihood of aggressive behavior

social trap

when decisions made based on personal interests rather than the best outcome for the group cause an unpleasant outcome for all

superordinate goals

shared goals between conflicting parties that force cooperation

mere exposure affect

proximity increases familiarity and liking

Robert Sternberg

triangular theory of love: intimate love, commitment love, passionate love

consummate love

a love embodying all three from the triangle theory of love

altruism

selfless concern for the well-being of others

bystander affect

the likelihood of giving aid decreases when other people are present

social exchange theory

decisions about whether to help someone in need are based on a personal cost-benefit analysis

reciprocity norm

helping another person is expected if they have helped us in the past

social responsibility norm

helping another person is expected whenever possible because it is the right thing to do

Phillip Zimbardo

Stanford prison experiment - studied the effect of assigned social roles and expectations of behavior

prototype

another term for schema - a mental conception of something

categories

a hierarchy for mental organization (superordinate, basic, subordinate)

confirmation bias

the tendency to only accept information that supports a pre-existing belief

belief perseverence

clinging to initial conclusions, even after they have been discredited

framing

the way in which information is presented; may alter cognition about the information

insight

the mental experience of reaching a solution to a problem

algorithm

a method for problem-solving that involves examining every possible solution; guarantees accuracy, but can be time consuming

heuristic

a method for problem solving that involves using a rule to eliminate possible answers; faster process, but can be error-prone

availability heuristic

judging the likelihood of something based on how easily it comes to mind

representativeness heuristic

judging the likelihood of something based on how well it fits in a prototype/schema

convergent thinking

the type of mental processing necessary to solve a problem that has a single answer

divergent thinking

the type of mental processing necessary to solve a problem that has multiple possible answers

mental set

a common problem-solving error that involves solving a problem in a familiar way based on past experiences (3 jugs problem)

fixation

inability to solve a problem due to a lack of necessary perspective

functional fixation

inability to see the uses of an object beyond its originally intended purpose

phonemes

the most basic sounds that make up a language

morphemes

basic sound elements of a language that have meaning; made up of phonemes

grammar

the rules for using a language

semantics

the use of words to accurately and meaningfully convey an idea

syntax

the correct arrangement of word order for a language

critical period

a limited window of developmental opportunity during which a particular skill (language) ins most easily learned

babbling stage

speaking includes phonemes, but no application of words or grammar

holophrastic stage

the use of one word to convey meaning

telegraphic stage

the use of two meaningfully connected words to convey meaning

syntax stage

the use of words that includes the beginnings of grammatical rules and beyond

B.F. Skinner

Operant Learning Theory - language is learned through imitation and consequences that follow

Noam Chomsky

inborn universal grammar - the capacity to learn language is innate (LAD)

Benjamin Whorf

linguistic determinism - the language we use and the ways that we think about the world are connected

Alfred Binet

created the original IQ test comparing chronological age to mental age

Lewis Terman

created the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test

David Wechsler

created WPPSI, WISC, WAIS

Charles Spearman

believed that the most accurate measure of intelligence was a single, overall score embodying all of their intellectual skills

savant syndrome

disabled people having one ability that surpasses the general population

Howard Gardner

8 multiple ways to be intelligent

Robert Sternberg

3 ways to be intelligent

achievement test

an assessment that measures one’s accumulated knowledge about a subject/topic

aptitude test

an assessment that predicts one’s success in some future endeavor or task

reliability

the extent to which an assessment yields consistent results

validity

the extent to which an assessment yields consistent results

stereotype threat

a self confirming concern that one will be evaluated on a negative stereotype

flynn effect

a recorded increase in average IQ that occurs with each new generation

down syndrome

a genetic cause of intellectual disability; caused by a trisomy of chromosome 21

fragile X syndrome

a genetic cause of intellectual disability; caused by mutation errors on the X chromosome

Wolfgang Kohler

non-human animal cognition; researched problem-solving strategies of other animals and found that it is pretty similar to humans

DSM-5

the diagnostic and statistical manual for mental disorders - 5th edition; Encyclopedia of symptoms, causes and Research on all psych disorders

Aaron Beck

The cognitive triad of depression; negative thoughts about oneself, the world, and the future

Albert Ellis

rational emotive therapy; the therapist questions and challenges the unrealistic cognition of the client, picking it apart over time

Suicide

more attempts by women but more completions by men; more in the elderly

physical dependance

ones biological need for a drug, marked by alterations to the body’s internal chemistry