genpsych midterms x3

operational defintion

statement about the procedures the researcher used to measure a variable

case study

advantage:
-in depth analysis of one subject (or more)
-real world context
-flexiblity
-exploration nature
-highlights unique cases

disadvantages:
- limited generalizability
- subjectivity and bias
- time-consuming and costly
- difficult to replicate
- risk of over-interpretation

observation method

describe and measure people and/or animals behavior systematically

advantages:
-realistic data collection
-non-intrusive
-rich, detailed data
-flexible
disadvantages:
-observer bias (different observations → different interpretations)
-behavior change when audience know theyre observed
-lack of control
-difficult to replicate
-ethical concerns

2 types of observational methods

naturalistic observation: without interfering anything (ex. watch students go to class)

lab observation: controlled, in labs (ex. have students come to lab and act like theyre in class)

survey methods

asking people questions about their thoughts, feelings, desires, and actions and recording their answers

advantage:
-efficient distribution and data collection
-flexible delivery methods
-standardized questions

disadvantages:
-self-report bias
-low response bias
-lack of control over the environment
-question misinterpretation

random sampling/random selection

everyone in the population has an equal chance of being in the sample

getting random population to get a representative sample

correlational method

measures strength and direction of relationship between 2 variables

positive correlation

variables change in the same direction

negative correlation

variables change in opposite direction

correlation does not necessarily indicate causation

The principle that a correlation between two variables does not imply that one variable causes the other to change.

independent variable

manipulated by experimenter

dependent variable

outcome variable

confounding variable

variable that is potentially responsible for the results, but not the variable of interest (the IV)

(uncontrolled variable that influences IV and DV, misleading)

random assignment

method used to place participants into experimental condition in which participants have an equal chance of being in every condition

experimental control

researcher makes sure that no factors other than the IV are changing and thus could affect the DV

isolate the IV as the only potential cause for the DV

keeping variables constant across groups (same setting, same instructions, same timing, etc.).

generalizability

an outcome to other groups and settings

myelin sheath

specialized cells that are wrapped around the axon to help transmit message, faster when coated, continue to form as we grow

action potential

electrical impulse that travels from the cell body down to the end of the axon (neural firing)

synapse

junction between 2 neurons (things get easier as synapse gets stronger)

neurotransmitter

chemical messengers that travel across synapse from sending neuron to receptors on receiving neuron

endorphins

reduce pain and promote pleasure

(ex. natural: runners high) (orig. endogenous morphines)

opioids drugs: mimic endorphins, bind to same receptors

dopamine

involved in voluntary movement(smooth, coordinate movement), reward, learning, memory

(ex. parkinson disease: not enough dopamine, addiction: triggers dopamines reward system)

serotonin

involved in sleep, appetite, mood

(ex. SSRI (selective serotonin retake inhibitors) - prevent immediate reuotake: used for eating disorders, sleep disorders)

epinephrine and norepinephrine

involves in stress response

epi (adrenaline) - increases heartrate, dilates airways… etc. (fight-or-flight response)

nor (noradrenaline) - raising blood pressure, attention

agonists

increase normal activity of a neurotransmitter (at a shortage)

ex. shaped like neurotransmitter to bind to receptor, increase production of n.t, prevent reuptake

antagonists

decrease activity of a neurotransmitter (at a surplus)

blocks receptors so n.t cant bind to it

ex. botox (ACh antagonist), SSRI(serotonin antagonsit)

autonomic nervous system

sympathetic and parasympathetic

sympathetic nervous system

increase physiological arousal (fight-or-flight response: fight or flee in tense situations)

parasympathetic nervous system

decreases arousal

endocrine system

a network of glands that release hormones into the bloodstream to regulate organs throughout the body

pituitiary glands

“master gland”

adrenal glands (x2)

important in mood, energy level, stress response

ex. epinephrine(adrenaline), norepinephrine(noradrenaline), cortisol(stress hormone)

EEG

detect electrical activity of neurons in particular regions of the brain

no image, assess function (brain waves)

fMRI

functional magnetic resonance imaging
-uses MRI to measure relative activity of various brain areas during tasks

MRI+function=both image&function

brainstem

where motor nerves (pons) and sensory nerves (medulla) cross over from left to right, right to left (bridge between brain and body)

amygdala (x2) (l.s)

emotions, aggression, fear

hippocampus

gateway to memory, enables formation of new conscious memories

cerebral cortex

-higher forms of thinking

-2 hemispheres - left and right

-4 lobes on each hemisphere: frontal, parietal, occiptial, temporal

frontal lobe

at the front of the brain

-planning, creative thinking, personality

-contain motor cortex, broca’s area

motor cortex

voluntary movement

mirror neurons

fire(motor neurons) when observing another person doing something

(ex. emotion during sad movies, empathy, watching sports games)

parietal lobe

top of the brain

-contain somatosensory cortex
-receive information about touch sensation

occipital lobe

-in back of the head
-contain visual cortex: processes visual signals

temporal lobe

side of the head
-contain auditory cortex: processes sound

-contain Wernicke’s area

sensory (somatosensory) cortex

receives information about touch sensation

plasticity

flexibility of brain structures

inattentional blindness

failing to detect available stimuli due to selective attention

change blindness

failing to detect changes in stimuli due to selective attention

How does light affect the SCN?
how are the pineal gland and melatonin involved in our sleep-wake cycle?

SCN directs pineal gland to stop secreting melatonin (light), or secret melatonin (darkness)
artificial lightning - interferes with circadian rhythm

N-REM sleep

non-rapid eye movement

N-1

light sleep (hypnagogic jerk, hallucinations)
dont realize theyre awake, easy to wake up

N-2

true sleep, brain activity slows, reductions in heart rate and muscle tension

N-3

deep sleep, slowest(big) brain waves, hard to awaken, disoriented when awakened_, growth hormones released from pituitary gland

REM sleep

brain waves resembles wakefulness

What happens during REM sleep

eyes move back and forth; heart rate, blood pressure, breathing are rapid or irregular; sleep paralysis, “paradoxical” sleep, dreams

paradoxical sleep

brain is active but body is paralyzed/relaxed

sleep paralysis

inability to move major muscles when waking up from or in REM, waking up from REM sometimes cannot move for a time = mismatch

Piaget’s approach to cognitive development

• children’s understanding with schema/mental categories

• they make constant mental adaptations to new observations/experiences

• “little scientists”

schema

a mental framework that helps organize and interpret information, new things fitting in

Assimilation

fitting new information into present system of knowledge (schema)

Accommodation

as a result of new information, change existing schema

Piaget’s stages

Sensorimotor stage, Preoperational stage, Concrete operations stage, Formal operations stage

Sensorimotor stage

birth to 2 years, use looking, sucking, touching, and listening to understand/explore environment, develop object permanence  

object permanence

understanding that something continues to exist even when it cannot be seen
ex. peek-a-boo

Preoperational

age 2-7, egocentric, animistic thinking, doesn’t understand conservation

egocentric

only use own frame of reference, difficulty understanding perspectives other than their own

conservation

understanding that physical properties do not change when appearance changes

Concrete operational

age 7-11, understands conservation, reversibility, and transitivity

Formal operations

age 11-adullthood, abstract and systematic reasoning(ex. metaphors), thinking about future possibilities

Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development

• emphasizes the role of social interaction and culture in learning

• Cognitive development results from guidance

• children as “apprentices”

 zone of proximal development

• level at which a child can almost perform a task independently (cant do even if guided, can do if guided, can do independently)

• difference between what child can do alone and with assistance

ex) driving

Scaffolding

teacher adjusts amount of support to child’s level of development

theory of mind

understanding of how other people think

 Erikson’s stage theory of social development

a series of 8 stages
healthy developing individual should pass through from infancy to late adulthood
each characterized by a specific conflict that marks a turning point in development

Trust vs. mistrust

(birth to 1 yr), develops a sense of trust when caregiving is sensitive, responsive, consistent
→ allows formation of intimate relationships in future, “whom can i trust?”

Autonomy vs. shame and doubt

(age 1-3) gaining autonomy, independence, self-awareness, self-control

ex) saying no to others, potty training

Initiative vs. guilt

(age 3-6) learn to initiate tasks and carry out plans, receiving approval/disapproval of their good/bad choices, 
“am i good or bad”, “what can i do without causing trouble?”

Industry vs. inferiority

(ages 6-11) developing a sense of competence/inadequacy through learning, accomplishments and evaluations
“what am i good at?, how can i compare?”

Identity vs. confusion

(adolescence) Stable sense of who one is and what one’s values are or identity confusion “Who am I? Where do I belong?”

Intimacy vs. isolation

(early adulthood) Establish enduring committed relationships, “Whom can I trust with intimacy and love”, sacrifice/compromise through hardships

Generativity vs. stagnation

(Midlife) Generativity (generate things that contribute to the future of society) or stagnation (see life as meaningless) “How can I continue to grow as a person?”

Integrity vs. despair

(Late life) Ego integrity (feeling that one’s life has coherence and purpose) or Despair (disappointment, regret) “How can I feel content with my life so I can face death calmly?”

Harlow’s studies of infant attachment

Monkey was more attached to furry cloth mother than metal despite metal providing food,

=> contact, comfort, affection > nourishment

How did Mary Ainsworth study attachment

“Strange situation” experiment, a series of eight episodes lasting aprox 3 minutes each, where a mother, infant, and stranger are introduced, separated, and reunited

Mary Ainsworth attachment findings

secure, insecure-anxious/ambivalent(resistant), insecure-avoidant

secure

children with a strong sense of trust and comfort with their caregivers, typically due to caregivers consistently responding sensitively to their needs
(child cried when mom left, stopped when she came back)

Insecure-anxious/ambivalent

children who experience mixed feelings of dependency and anger toward their caregiver due to inconsistent emotional caregiving (child cried when mom left, didnt calm down when came back, might even turn to stranger, leaves or kick mom)

Insecure-avoidant 

emotional distance, independence, and minimal visible reliance on caregivers (little reaction to parent coming or going, used to it)

Baumrind’s 2 dimensions of parenting

warmth (responsiveness) and control (demandingness)
→ resulting 4 styles: (Authoritarian, Permissive, Uninvolved/neglectful, Authoritative)

Authoritarian

low warmth, high control
demanding, obedience, restrictive, rules
= lower grades, lower self-esteem, non independent

Permissive 

high warmth, low control
very few rules or restrictions (friend-like parents)
=Easily frustrated, low self-control, no self-discipline

Uninvolved/neglectful

low warmth, low control
least effective and most detrimental
= low self-esteem, emotionally detached

Authoritative

high warmth, high control (standards on behavior)
not overly demanding, childcentered, most optimal
=higher grades, cooperative, get along with ppl, high self-esteem, independency

Kohlberg’s theory of moral development

outlines the different levels and stages of moral reasoning that individuals go through as they develop their understanding of right and wrong

3 stages of moral development

Preconventional morality, Conventional morality, Postconventional morality

Preconventional morality

Ages 4-10, avoid punishment or gain reward, externally determined, focus on consequences/self-interest

Conventional morality

After age 10, “Law and order”
“good boy morality”: behave morally to be perceived/seen as a good person
→ based on someone else's' rules, internalized but not independent

Postconventional morality

early adolescent/young adult, individual values and conscience

delay of gratification

ability to forego smaller, immediate rewards for greater rewards later

Marshmallow test

Children in a study given the choice of 1 marshmallow now or 2
marshmallows in a few minutes (Mischel, 1961)