Unit 0 - AP Psychology

Psychology

The study of behavior and mental processes.

Critical Thinking

Puts ideas to test by examining assumptions, appraising the source, discerning hidden biases, evaluating evidence, and assessing conclusions.

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe, after learning the outcome, that one would have foreseen it.

• “I knew it all along!"

Overconfidence

The tendency to overestimate your knowledge and/or ability.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information in a way that confirms ones preexisting beliefs or hypotheses.

Theory

A general idea on a phenomenon.

Hypothesis

Educated prediction/guess.

Falsifiable

A mark for its scientific strength.

• Can it be proven false?

Operational Definitions

Exact specifications on how the research is conducted, how variables are measured, etc..

Peer Review

Reviews who can provide additional insight or perspective.

Replication

The ability to do research a second time to ensure the reliability of the results.

Sample

Selected Participants

Representative Sample

Reflects the characteristics of greater target population on key demographics.

• Age, sex, race, level of education etc.

Random Sample

Every member of the target population had an equal change of being selected.

Generalizataility

The ability to apply the results of a study to a broader group of people and/or other situations/contexts.

Sampling Bias

The4 tendency for researchers to target their participants to increase the likelihood of proving their hypothesis, failure to properly gather participant as a representative sample of the population, leading to skewed results, or generalize from a few vivid but unrepresentative responses.

Case Study

A descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

Naturalistic Observation

A descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate or control the situation.

Survey

A descriptive technique (not an actual method) used to obtain self-reported attitudes and behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning the group. 

Population

The entire group of individuals that a researcher wants to study and draw conclusions about.

Social Desirability Bias

The tendency for people to provide answers that may be dishonest because they are seeking approval and/or want to highlight their character strengths.

Self-Report Bias

Participants can try to affect the outcome of the research and/or be unrealistic about themselves.

• They try to please the researcher or even try to purposely challenge the researchers hypothesis.

Wording Effects

How questions are worded can skew reponces.

Meta-analysis

A statistical procedure that analysis the results of multiple studies to reach an overall conclusion.

Convenience Sampling

Participants are selected because they are easily available and close to the researcher, rather than through a random or scientific selection method.

Variable

Any measurable characteristic, trait, or factor that can change or vary in a research study.

Positive Correlation

Both are affected in the same way; either both go up or both go down.

Negative Correlation 

Inverse relationship; as one increases, the other decreases.

Correlation

Indicates the relationship between two sets of data.

Correlation Coefficient

The statistical measure which is noted on a scale from -1.0 to +1.0 (r-value).

Scatter Plot

Data is displayed to show correlation. The closer the correlation coefficient is to -1 or +1, the stronger the correlation.

Directionality Problem

Can’t say which caused which.

3rd Factor Problem

Could be no cause-and-effect at all.

Illusory Correlation

When we believe there is a relationship between variables where none exists.

Regression Toward the Mean

The tendency for extreme or unusual scores/events to fall back toward the average.

Experimental Methodology

The ONLY method that can establish a cause and effect relationship between variables.

Independent Variable

The researcher manipulates one variable and observes its effects.

Dependent Variable

The independent variable affects this variable.

Experimental Group

Gets the independent variable.

Control Group

Doesn’t get the independent variable.

Random Group Assignment

There must be this or the experimental design is flawed.

Single-blind Study

Participants don’t know which group they’re in.

Placebo

Fake or inert substance with known effects. Assures participants don’t know which group they’re in.

Placebo Effect

Experimental results caused by expectations alone (i.e. the participant acts or claims to feel a certain way because they think they have the drug that would cause that reaction).

Experimenter Bias

Experimenter unintentionally encourages the participant to respond in a way that supports the hypothesis. The experimenter

Double-blind Procedure

Neither the researcher nor participant is aware of group assignment.

Confounding Variables

Things that can affect your DV - other than the IV. Need to identify compounds and control them, when/if possible.

Validity

The extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it intends to.

Non-experimental Methodology

Observing conclusions through things like case studies, surveys, and naturalistic observation, without manipulating variables.

Quantitative Research

A method that relies on and supplies numerical data (ex. survey, results, test scores).

Likert Scale

Give a numeral rating to measure options, attitudes, or behaviors, allowing for statistical analysis.

Qualitative Research

A method that relies on in-depth, narrative analysis that cannot be translated into numerical data (ex. case studies, structured interview responses).

Institutional Review

Approval from research institution through a board.

Informed Consent

Giving potential participants enough information about the study to enable them to choose whether or not to participant.

Informed Assent

When a parent or guardian consents for a minor.

Confidentiality

Personal information remains confidential; no personal information is published with results.

Anonymity

Researchers are unaware of any identifying information that can tie results/reponses to any particular participant.

Protection From Harm

No long-term physical or psychological harm occurs.

• All animal participants must be well cared for.

• If an animal has lost quality of life from participation, it should be humanely euthanized.

Debriefing

The post experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and the use of deception and/or research confederates (if applicable).

Research Confederates

Individuals who seem to be participants but in reality are part of the research team.

Structured Interview

All people interviewed got the same set of questions.

Descriptive Statistics

Numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups, including measures of central tendency and variation. These can be represented through the use of histograms or graphical representations of data points organized into user-specific ranges.

Mean

Average of scores

Median

In a distribution of scores, the number that falls in the middle numerically.

Mode

In a distribution of scores, the number that occurs the most frequently.

Percentile Rank

The percentage the scores that are less than or equal to a given score.

Range

Distance from highest and lowest scores.

Standard Deviation

The average distance from the mean for a set score; shows you the spread of scores.

Measures of Central Tendency

Describes the “typical” or middle point of a data set, like the mean, median, or mode.

Measures of Variability

Indicates how spread out the data points are from that sentral point including range and standard deviation.

Normal Curve/Distribution

Represented by a symmetrical bell shaped curve that describes the destitution of many types of data where most scores fall in the middle and fewer scores fall in the extremes.

Skewed Destitution

Represented as an asymmetrical curve, with more scores falling to one end or the other.

Bimodal Distribution

A type of statistical distribution that shows two distinct peaks in a data set.

Positive Skew and Negative Skew

Inferential Statistics/Data

Numerical data that allow one to generalize/inter sample data the probability of something being true of a larger population.

Statistical Significance (p-value)

The degree to which you are sure that the dependent variable was a result of exposure to the independent variable.

• To be considered statistically significant, you want to be as close as you can to the p-value of 0.05 (or less).

• 5% likely a result of chance.

• 95% sure that the IV caused the DV.

Effect Size

Tells you how meaningful the relationship between two variables or difference between two groups is.