The autocracy of Alexander II and Alexander III

What was the cause of the tsar going back on many of the reforms he had put in place?

• In 1865, Alexander II’s eldest son and heir died

• His wife suffering from Tuberculosis, had withdrawn from public appearances

• He sought consolation from his mistress Yekaterina

• This distanced him from his brother Grand Duke Konstantin and the Grand Duchess Elena

• Many assassination attempts

• He became less inclined to resist the reactionary conservatives who believed the Tsar’s reforming instincts had gone to far.

In 1866, which liberal ministers were replaced with conservatives?

• Dimitri Tolstoy as Minister for education, replacing the liberal Golovnin

• Aleksandr Timashev as minister of internal affairs, to replace Piotr Valuev

What did Dimitri Tolstoy think about education?

• Was a staunch Orthodox believer

• Felt a tight control over education was essential to eradicate western liberal ideas and growing critics m of the autocracy

The reaction to Education

• The Zemstvo’s power over education were reduced

• The church regained its authority over rural schools

• The higher gimnaziya schools were ordered to follow a traditional classical curriculum and abandon teaching natural sciences

• From 1871, only students from a gimnaziya could progress to university

• Censorship was tightened and there was strict control over student activities and organisations

The reaction to Police, law and control

• Shuvalov strengthen the police, encouraged the third section

• Stepped up the persecution of other ethnic and religious minorities

• Searches and arrests increased

• Paleness held open ‘show’ trials, with the intention of deterring others from revolutionary activity

The Loris-Melikov constitution

• Released political prisoners

• Relaxed censorship

• Removed salt-tax

• Lifted restrictions on the activities of the zemstva

• Third section abolished

What had Alexander III been brought up to believe?

Believed that with God’s direction, he alone could decide what was right for his country; the duty of his subjects was not to question, but to love and obey.

Alexander III- changed in local government

• ‘Land captain’ was created in 1889, with power to override elections to the zemstvo and to disregard zemstvo decisions.

• In 1890 election arrangements for the zemstva, so as to reduce peasants vote, and placed zemstva under government control.

• In 1892, the electorate was reduced to the owners of property above a certain value

Alexander III- changes in policing

• The number of police was increased

• New branches of criminal investigation departments were set up

• Drive to recruit spies, counter spies and ‘agent provocateurs’

• By 1882, statute on police surveillance, any area of the empire could be deemed an ‘area of subversion and police agents could search, arrest, detain anyone they were suspicious of

Alexander III- changes in the judicial system

• 1885, a decree provided for the minster of justice to exercise greater control, e.g. in the dismissal of judges

• 1887, granted powers to hold closed court sessions

• 1889 became responsible for the appointment of town judges

• 1887, property and educational qualifications needed by jurors were raised

Alexander III- Changes in education

• Closed universities for women and abolished separate university courts

• All university life was closely supervised, with students forbidden from gathering in groups more than 5

• Children from the lowest classes were restricted to primary education

Alexander III- changes in censorship

• Newspapers allowed to be closed down

• Life ban placed on editors and publishers

• All literary publications had to be officially approved

• Libraries and reading rooms were restricted in the books they were allowed to stock

• Censorship extend to theatre, art and culture where Russification was enforced

Progressive policies

• May 1881, a law reduced the redemption fees payable

• May 1885, the poll tax was abolished and the introduction of inheritance tax helped to shift the burden of taxation a little

• Establishment of the peasants land bank in 1883

• Introduction of the right to appeal to higher courts

  • This may merely have been introduced in an effort to forestall rebellion