AP Psych Cognition

prototype

a mental image or best example of a category

schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

accommodation

adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information

algorithm

A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.

heuristic

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone

representative heuristic

judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes

availability heuristic

making a decision based on the answer that most easily comes to mind

mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response

framing

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.

gambler's fallacy

the belief that the odds of a chance event increase if the event hasn't occurred recently

sunk-cost fallacy

people make decisions about a current situation based on what they have previously invested in the situation

executive functions

higher order thinking processes that include planning, organizing, inhibition, and decision-making

divergent thinking

expands the number of possible problem solutions (creative thinking that diverges in different directions)

convergent thinking

narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

functional fixedness

the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving

explicit memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"

implicit memory

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection

episodic memory

the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place

semantic memory

memory for knowledge about the world

working memory

active maintenance of information in short-term storage

long-term potentiation (LTP)

an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.

prospective memory

remembering to do things in the future

central executive

the part of working memory that directs attention and processing

phonological loop

the part of working memory that holds and processes verbal and auditory information

visuospatial sketchpad

A component of working memory where we create mental images to remember visual information

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

structural encoding

shallow processing that emphasizes the physical structure of the stimulus

phonemic processing

when we encode its sound

semantic encoding

the encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words

mnemonics

learning aids, strategies, and devices that improve recall through the use of retrieval cues

method of loci

A mnemonic technique that involves associating items on a list with a sequence of familiar physical locations

peg word system

associates numbers with items that rhyme with or resemble the numbers

chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

primacy effect

tendency to remember words at the beginning of a list especially well

recency effect

tendency to remember words at the end of a list especially well

rehearsal

the conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage

elaborative rehearsal

a method of transferring information from STM into LTM by making that information meaningful in some way

autobiographical memory

a special form of episodic memory, consisting of a person's recollections of his or her life experiences

retrograde amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from one's past

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories

infantile amnesia

the inability to remember events from early childhood

Alzheimer's disease

a progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and, finally, physical functioning

recall

A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

recognition

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

context dependent memory

The theory that information learned in a particular situation or place is better remembered when in that same situation or place. (encoding specificity principle)

mood congruent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information

forgetting curve

a graphic depiction of how recall falls quickly and then steadily declines over time

proactive interference

the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

retroactive interference

the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

the temporary inability to remember something you know, accompanied by a feeling that it's just out of reach

misinformation effect

incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event

source amnesia

faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined

constructive memory

memory that utilizes knowledge and expectations to fill in the missing details in retrieved memory traces

intelligence quotient (IQ)

defined originally as the ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) multiplied by 100 [thus, IQ = (ma/ca) x 100]. On contemporary intelligence tests, the average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100.

standardized testing

a procedure whereby all students in a state take the same test under the same conditions (purpose of comparison)

validity

The ability of a test to measure what it is intended to measure

reliability

Ability of a test to yield very similar scores for the same individual over repeated testings

test-retest reliability

using the same test on two occasions to measure consistency

split-half reliability

dividing the test into two equal halves and assessing how consistent the scores are

stereotype threat

the apprehension experienced by members of a group that their behavior might confirm a cultural stereotype

achievement test

a test designed to assess what a person has learned

aptitude test

a test designed to predict a person's future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn

fixed mindset

the idea that we have a set amount of an ability that cannot change

growth mindset

belief that qualities can change/improve through effort

multiple intelligences

the idea that there are different types of intelligence that are independent of one another

g-factor

A general ability, proposed by Spearman as the main factor underlying all intelligent mental activity

triarchic theory of intelligence

Sternberg's theory that there are three kinds of intelligence: analytical, creative, and practical

Flynn effect

the worldwide phenomenon that shows intelligence test performance has been increasing over the years

fluid intelligence

our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood

crystallized intelligence

our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age

emotional intelligence

the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions