Copy of Final Exam Topics List 2026

Cell

The smallest units of living things.

Tissue

Groups of similar cells that have a common function.

Organ

Discrete structure composed of at least two tissue types performing a specific function.

Organ system

Categories that include cells, tissues, organs, and systems.

Metabolism

All chemical reactions that occur within body cells.

Catabolism

Breaking down substances into simpler building blocks.

Anabolism

Synthesizing complex substances from simpler building blocks.

Homeostasis

Ability to maintain relatively stable internal conditions.

Hydrophobic

Water fearing.

Hydrophilic

Water loving.

Peptide bond

Bond between two amino acids by a dehydration reaction.

DNA

Genetic material that directs protein synthesis and replicates before cell division.

RNA

Carries genetic instructions to make proteins.

Plasma membrane

Separates the intracellular fluid within the cell from the extracellular fluid outside the cell.

Mitochondria

Organelles that produce ATP.

Eccrine sweat glands

Most numerous sweat glands, abundant in palms and feet, producing mostly water.

Apocrine sweat glands

Sweat glands that produce odorless sweat that may cause body odor when decomposed by bacteria.

Sebaceous glands

Oil glands that soften and lubricate hair and skin.

Osteomalacia

Disorders where bones are poorly mineralized, leading to soft and weak bones.

Rickets

Similar to osteomalacia but occurs in children leading to more severe deformities.

Osteoporosis

Disease where bone resorption outpaces bone deposit, leading to fragile bones.

Skeletal muscle

Voluntary muscle that is striated.

Cardiac muscle

Involuntary muscle that is striated.

Smooth muscle

Involuntary muscle that is non-striated.

Sarcomere

Smallest unit of a muscle fiber, between two z discs.

Myosin

Thick filament in muscle fibers.

Actin

Thin filament in muscle fibers.

Antibodies

Proteins produced by plasma cells in response to specific pathogens.

Antigens

Proteins on the surface of pathogens that trigger an immune response.

Pathogen

Any living organism or virus capable of causing disease.

Hormones

Chemical messengers produced by glands that affect physiological functions.

Glucagon

Hormone that increases blood sugar levels by converting glycogen into glucose.

Insulin

Hormone that decreases blood sugar levels by converting glucose into glycogen.