Chapter 7: Thinking, Intelligence, and Language

Cognition

How information is processed and manipulated in remembering, thinking, and knowing.

AI

Creating machines capable of carrying out tasks that require intelligence when done by people.

Thinking

A process involving the manipulation of information mentally by forming concepts, problem solving, making decisions, and reflecting.

Concepts

Mental categories for grouping objects, events, and characteristics.

Prototype model

When people evaluate whether an object reflects a certain concept, they often compare it other objects in that category.

Aria was trying to figure out how to put together a puzzle. She is trying to ______.

Problem solve: trying to find an appropriate way to reach a goal.

Briar saw that the sky was cloudy and dark, so she concluded that it was about to rain. Briar used _____.

Reasoning: transforming information to reach conclusions.

Cora needed to choose which stock would make her the most profit. Cora was _____.

Decision making: evaluating options and choosing among them.

Subgoals

Intermediate goals that work towards a larger goal.

Finny used a step-by-step recipe for baking a cake. Finny was using an ______.

Algorithm: strategies that guarantee a solution.

Gale was trying to make his way downtown. Since he knew people usually went there, he started to follow the flow of people. Gale was using a _____.

Heuristic: a short cut, strategy, or rule-of-thumb that suggests a solution, but does not guarantee it.

Functional fixedness

When someone fails to solve a problem because they are focused on the usual solution instead of a more novel one.

Flora meets a rude toddler and decides that all toddlers are rude. Flora used ______.

Inductive reasoning: using a specific observation to make generalizations.

David learned that all plants need water to survive, so he concluded that his snake plant needs water. This is an example of______.

Deductive reasoning: using a generalization and applying it to a specific instance.

Haven is asked if she would choose to flip a coin that had a 50/50 chance of causing Haven to gain $100 or lose $50. Haven decides not to because of ______.

Loss aversion: the tendency to avoid small losses compared to acquiring gains.

Lyra heard that Jenna was a rude person. When Lyra met up with Jenna, she focused on how Jenna was late and overlooked that Jenna brought a coffee for them. This is an example of _____.

Confirmation bias: searching for information that supports our ideas and ignoring ones that refute them.

Before the baseball game, August said that he wasn’t sure if his favorite team would win based on their past games. However, after his favorite team won, August claimed that he always knew that they would win. This is an example of _____.

Hindsight bias: to falsely report “I knew it all along” after the event has occurred, even if there was no way of knowing the outcome.

Carla recently heard a news story about a plane crash. She is now afraid that her upcoming flight may also crash. This is an example of _____.

Availability bias: a prediction about the probability of an event based on the ease of recalling or imagining similar events.

A restaurant has amazing reviews, but when your friend tells you a bad experience, you view the restaurant in a negative way. This is an example of _____.

Base rate neglect: to ignore general information in favor of more specific and vivid information.

Kaylee is extremely smart and has a Ph.D, but when she showed up to her job interview in sloppy clothes, the interviewer thought she was a bad candidate because of her appearance. This is an example of _____.

Representative heuristic: to make judgements about group membership based on physical appearance and/or stereotypes.

Critical thinking

To think deeply and productively while evaluating evidence.

Mindfulness

To be alert and mentally present for the day’s events.

Creative thinking

The ability to come up with new and novel ideas and solutions.

Two students, Ezra and Felix were told to design a room. Ezra came up with 10 potential ideas and Felix came up with 1 amazing idea. What kind of thinking did each student use?

Ezra used divergent thinking: producing many solutions. Felix used convergent thinking: producing the best solution.

Intelligence

The ability to do well on cognitive tasks, solve problems, and learn.

Vadlidity

The extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure.

Reliability

The extent to which a test gives consistent, reproducible results.

IQ

A measure of intelligence calculated by dividing the mental age by the chronological age and multiplying it by 100.

Normal distribution

A bell-shaped curve on the graph showing the majority in the middle and decrease towards the extremes.

Culture-fair tests

Intelligence tests that are intended to be culturally fair, however they are hard to make because cultures are different in many ways.

Gifted

A high intelligence (IQ 130 or greater) and/or a talent in a certain area.

Intellectual disability

A condition of limited mental ability, low cognitive abilities, and trouble adapting.

Triarchic theory of intelligence

A theory stating that there are 3 forms of intelligence: analytical (to judge, evaluate, compare), creative (to create, design, invent), and practical (to apply, implement, and use).

Language

A form of communication.

Syntax

A language’s rules for structure and grammar.

Semantics

The meaning of words and sentences in a certain language.

Noam Chomsky’s theory of language development and biological influences

He argued that humans come into the world biologically prepared to learn language at a certain time and way. Biological influences include; the brain, nervous system, vocal apparatus, and  the shape of the mouth, lips, and tongues. As well as genetics, plasticity, and health.

Environmental influences for language development

Quality of conversation, language-rich surroundings (Ex: books, movies), resource access, socioeconomic status, schooling, peer interaction, culture.

Herman George Canady

Promoted psychology for black students, studied intelligence in black people and biases.