Extinction of Species 360 Exam 1

Biodiversity protected

we protect it: Utilitarian and intrinsic (ethical) value

population crisis

the number of people is growing too quickly for the earth to support

consumption crisis

people are using up wasting, or pollution natural resources faster than they can be renewed, replaced or cleaned up.

threats to biodiversity

1. Habitat fragmentation

2. invasive species

3. pollution

4. over harvesting

5. Disease

6. Climate Change

Biodiversity

the complete range of variation in 1. species, 2. their ecosystems interactions and 3. the genetic diversity

Genetic Diverstiy

measured the different amount of alleles or heterzygosity . if its high then it is more genetically diverse.

-important for long term: increases ability of species to adapt to future environmental change. Short term: loss of genetic increases the risk of extinction through inbreeding depression and compromised disease resistance.

species diversity Definition

number of species in a given area. maintain this by preventing extinction of indv. species.

morphological species definition

a group of ind. that is morphologically, physiologically or biochemically distinct from other species. taxonomist most commonly use. different species can still interbreed, species of the same can look different, also different species can look alike

Biological Species Definition

group of individuals that can interbreed in nature successfully not necessarily grouped according to appearance. generally the most used test. hybridization can happen.

Evolutionary Species Definition

a group of individuals that is evolving together and separately from other groups. often assessed based on similarities of DNA. although phylogenic classification can be counter intuitive.

Ecosystems

is a biological community with its associated physical and chemical environment. biotic and abiotic. includes keystone species, dominant species, rare species and common species.

Two types of values toward wild species

1. Utilitarian

2. Intrinsic

Utilitarian Value

make a species worthwhile as a means to help human beings achieve their ends. good, service, information, inspiration. we save the species that have value to us.

difficulty applying utilitarian values to all wild species

ignorance of species to the public, irreversibly extinct species is hard to argue economically, interdependence of species can be hard to economically value.

Intrinsic Value

equal right to live to all species. put cost/benefit on the species = the "safe minimum standard"

Types of Ethical Dimensions of our Relationship with Species

- Anthropocentric ethic: species are sued for the needs of people

- Stewardship ethics: humans are responsible caretakers of species

- Biocentric ethics: humans respect the rights of the indv species

- Ecocentric Ethic: species are coequal not be threatened by humans.

extinction in the wild

the only alive species are in captivity

locally extinct

that species is no longer found in that area/region.

ecologically extinct

it persists in such low numbers that it is effecting the ecosystem

normal background extinction rates

most species live up to 1-10 million years. thats about 1-10 species going extinct a year.

current rates of extinction

2 species per year.. 0.01% species. 100x times the normal rate.

mass extinction

75% of species extinct in 2 million years.

Ability for a species to adapt

ability to survive environmental change. must conserve genetic diversity. to adapt is to evolve

speciation rate

is the evolutionary process by which multiple new species arise from a single ancestral species per time unit. depends on how species evolve in response to changing environment. if no speciation --> extinction.

Biological Evolution

changes in inherited traits over time.

microevolution

changes in traits in a population from one generation to the next

macroevolution

creation of multiple species from a common ancestor over many generations,

Darwins theory of Natural Selection

organisms that survive produce more off spring. varies on their ability to survive based on their inherited characteristics.

Allopatric Speciation

a population is split up into 2 different populations and evolve to be different species. cant breed.

parapatric speciation

two groups of the same species evolve side by side but there is a physical barrier.. like one grows on a rock and the other grows on the soil next to it. not isolated.

sympatric speciation

occurs in the same location with no physical barrier via evolution of behavioral difference. flies on an orange tree or apple.

peripatric speciation

new species are formed in small, isolated populations, often due to rapid random genetic changes in the smaller population. small portion of the species got isolate and evolved.

Adaptive Radiation

surge of evolution from a original ancestral species into several new species that adapt to new environments. can be due to : loss of competitors, colonization of an new place, novel adaptation,

highly diverse ecosystem

Tropical rainforests, coral reefs, mediterranean communites

factors changing geographical differences in species diverstiy

1. Biogeography (size of area)

2. Environmental gradient (productivity, temp, rain, latitude,altitude)

3. Disturbance regimes (fires, catastrophic events)

measuring species richness

alpha: the number os species within a local area.

gamma: the total number of species across a larger region

Beta: the change of species across a region Gamma/ Alpha.

Hotspot based on

Endemism, Levels of threat, Species diversity. doesn't include genetic diversity.

the Septet

1. habitat loss

2. overexploitation

3. invasive species

4. disease

5. climate change

6. pollution

7. Intrinsic ( stochastic) factors

Habitat

is the physical and biological environment used by a species. habitat provides food resources, protection from predators, shelter from element, breeding sites. is the most important factor threatening species extinction.

major drivers of habitat loss

agriculture, urbanization, timber harvest, water projects.

three forms of habitat change

1. loss of area

2. Fragmentation (islands)

3. Degradation

Fragmentation: Theory of Island Biogeography

extinction os species is influenced by island area. immigration of new species influenced by isolation of island from other islands. increase number of species the bigger the island and the closer it is to another island or main land.

Fragmentation: metapopulation dynamics

a set of local populations connected by dispersal. can persist if it can be recolonized and unoccupied colonies become colonized. factors that influence this is patch size and distance between patches, population size.

Fragmentation: edge effect

species may be edge sensitive, live on the interior.

three approaches to maintaining habitat

1. protection

2. management

3. restoration

Costa Ricas habitat loss

lost about 75% of their forest. coffee beans trees, shade grown

Sloths bio

they mostly eat leaves, some insects, birds, reptiles. low diet. low metabolic rate, slow movements. sleep 15 hrs. easy animals to capture and track.

4 sloth research questions

1. habitat quality: shade grown cacao

2. population viability: does shade-grown cacao plants pose a viable habitat for sloths

3. Mating system: stradegies of mating with such a low movement and energy intake.

4. poop on the ground

feild testing methods

radio telemetry, DNA sampling, Color collars.

habitat quality answer

they both prefer the cacao habitat but three toed avoid pastures.

population viability

mortality rate is low, three toes are declining in pop. genetic analysis supports there is immigration of three toed sloths around the surrounding forests.

mating system

breeding males tend to maintain territory, females tend to move in and out of territories, mix of polygyny and promiscuity. males sire alot of different females in a breeding season.

poop on ground

it is costly and risky to do so. they have a mutualistic relationship with the a moth that provides algea for the sloths. sloths poop on ground which the larva feed off of.

Tasmanian Devil Facial Tumor Disease

they had such a low genetic diversity it spread rapidly and they werent able to create an anitbody. 100% death rate. behavior faciliates the spread of the disease.

Bats and white nose sydrome

the syndrome would cause confusion. bats would fly around during the day in winter time when they should be hibernating. 5-2- million bats died. caused by a fungus. the fungus persists in caves that are uninhabited. resistant population have been identified.

Disease in respect to extinction

a contributor and cause of extinction. emerging diseases are on the rise. major threat to biodiverstiy.

Why the increase of disease?

1. increase human activity

2. Climate change

Disease introduction extinction

small populations are vulnerable. they lack genetic diverstiy. also a disease may affect a big population which lowers their population to a critical point where other factors effect extinction.

disease introduced extinctions usually occur from?

a naive host population, a mutation in pathogen, doesnt depend on density, multiple hosts.

Canine Distemper Virus

domestic dogs as the main reservoir host. spills over into wild carnivores, seals, and some marsupials. tigers can get this from eating the infected dog.

Fungal disease

the most common and prevalent disease. survive without a host. leads to host extinction more often, emerging at a rapid rate. white nose syndrome, chytrid,

indirect causes of disease

causes massive declines or extinction of keystone species, non hosts may be impacted. effects the ecosystem. coral disease, trees.

Disease management

captive breeding, vaccination and host treatment, environmental management,

Successful Invasive Species

established in any environment, wide habitat ranges, high density, good dispersal, high intrinsic value of growth, tolerant to humans. EX: zebra mussels, rat

invasive ecosystems

the harsher the ecosystem the harder it is for invasives to colonize. small areas, islands, are more susceptible to invasive, areas that lack keystone species, not well developed ecosystems, high disturbance.

biotic cost of invasive species

loss of biodiverstiy through extinction, extirpation and dramatic shifts in relative abundance. predation, competition, disease, parasitism and habitat alteration are the mechanisms that allow invasive exotic species to displace natives.

round island exotics

introduced goats and rabbits which were killing all of the endemic species on the island. he wanted to kill all of the rabbits and goats but activists wouldn't allow it.

increase for exotic species

global commerce has increased accessibly in the last 2 centuries.

prevention of invasives

this the main and first step in controlling invasives. eradicating is difficult and controversial. US has a black list species that can not enter our country. main issue is to educate people.

solutions to domestic cats

bells, collars, keep house bound

solutions to feral and free roaming cats

capture and adopt, feeding bans, sterilization TNR (trap, nueter, release) , lethal removal.

reasons for overexploitation

-Tragedy of the commons

-lack of knowledge

-value of rarity

-prejudice against predator species

types of overexploitation

-commercial : global market, international trade, poaching

-subsistence: bushmeat crisis, hunt rare animals they pay a large tag price.

-recreational: well regulated

-persecution: pests we overkill cuz we dont -like em

-inadvertent: incidental kill.

CITES

Convention of the International Trade in Endangered Species. these are volunteers that help stop the illegal trade of species. getting rid of the demand is the key to stopping this trade.

stopping overexploitation

education, prohibition, economic development, mitigate controllable threats, sustainability. removal = growth rate.

challenges of sustainable harvesting

Biological" estimating the accurate population size is difficult, harvest and consumers are unwilling to adjust.

Over harvesting in oceans

ecological impacts: some studies show that 90% have disappeared globally. fishing down the food web may have resulted in the ecological extinction of many large fishes. they fish for the largest fish for a larger profit. reverse evolution.

socio-economic impacts marine overharvest

fishing industries will suffer if they keep over fishing. in newfoundland the cod industry suffered and 40,000 people lost their fishery jobs.

commerce and demand for marine

fish is an important and cheap form of protein in many developing countries, health benefits of fish are what drives the demand, focus on short term profit over long term sustainability. tragedy of the commons.

technology advances for marine overexploitation

technology advances from outboard motors to floating fish factories have greatly increased the ability to over exploit marine species.

weak fisheries regualtion

government regulating fisheries often allow to much harvest of fish and the regulations are lax or non existing in developing countries. regulating in the open water is challenging.

destructive fishing practices

fisheries often use methods at net a large quantity of fish and in the path they destroy ecosystem. bottom trawling, blast fishing, poisoning fish.

effects of the marine habitat from over harvesting fish

degrading of spawning compromises species ability o withstand harvesting.

solutions to overharvesting:

-improve fisheries management and regulations (sustainable harvest, set a catch limit, better designed fishing gear) -less destructive fishing ( traps/plot, troll fishing, pole fishing)

-marine protected area,

aquaculture: fish farms

set a farming fish community to release the threat for native fish. this can effect the native species because they deplete their food source. directly destroys habitat.

By-Catch issue

fisheries often catch alot of by catch (non targeted species) . often the by catch is discarded back into the ocean dead or dying. Dolphins, crustacean

dolphin by catch

a tuna fishery noticed that when dolphins were around the tuna were near by. they would set nets on dolphins hoping to catch alot of tuna. killing 6 million dolphins.

sea turtle by catch

to catch shrimp trawling 20:1 ratio of shrimp to turtles. thounsands of sea turtles were caught in the gulf of mexico. created a sea turtle excluder device to avoid catching turtles.

seabird by catch

"long lining targeting tune and swordfish involves bating thousands of hooks on a single line. the albatross is threatened by this method.

Whale hunting

commercial whaling for wax, oil , meat. grey whales went extinct in 1600s. there was an international ban on hunting whales and the creation of International Whaling Commission. allows specific whaling in a specific area and species.

the passenger pigeon exticntion

the nested in huge colonies, only one egg clutch they went extinct by 1914. Cause: over exploitation. the telegraph system and railroads allowed for a more organized and large scale kill of the pigeons. made it a nation wide commerce. they denied that the bird would ever go extinct because they were so abundant. went extinct in 1914 "martha".

The response to the extinction

created the: The Lacy Act, Pelican Island NWR, Migratory Bird Treaty Act.

*people publicly mourned the death of the species. we realized we fuc*ed up.

cliamte change

increasing greenhouse gases causes climate change. is this due to human produced carbon?

expected trends from global climate change

increase global temps, drastic changes in precipitation, more catastrophic events,

vulnerable habitats to climate change

North poles, coral reefs, costal habitat ( sea levels rising), arid and semi arid regions,

climate change effects on other species

direct physiological effects, habitat shifts, phenological changes, novel disease, preadator and competitors (new species moving into their range) .

responses of species to climate change

adaptation ( evolve new traits), acclimation (behavioral or physiological changes) , disperse (rage shift) , go extinct.

barriers to range shift due to climate change

can cause species to not choose their preferred habitat.

phenological changes due to climate change

-short migrators migrate due to temp increase = migrate to early and dont have their food source.

- long distance migrators migrate from sun light increasing, photoperiod, this doesnt change but if the temp is increasing they might get to their destination and all of their niches are taken and their food source has been eaten.

novel disease and climate change

warming allows the pathogen and disease vectors to move into new areas. allows vectors to move up in altitude.