Defining Psychology and Its Biological Foundations Flashcards

Vocabulary practice flashcards covering key definitions, major psychological figures, research designs, biological structures, sensory theories, and states of consciousness from Chapters 1 through 5.

Psychology

The scientific study of behavior (observable actions like kissing or crying) and mental processes (private thoughts, feelings, and motives).

Critical Thinking

Asking questions, deeply evaluating evidence, and testing assertions.

Structuralism

A historical psychological perspective founded by Wilhelm Wundt that focused on identifying the elemental structures of the human mind using introspection.

Functionalism

A historical psychological perspective developed by William James that focused on the functions and adaptive purposes of the mind and behavior.

Natural Selection

An evolutionary principle proposed by Charles Darwin stating that organisms best adapted to their environment survive and reproduce.

Behavioral Approach

A contemporary psychological approach emphasizing observable behavioral responses and their environmental determinants, pioneered by John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner.

Psychodynamic Approach

A psychological approach focusing on unconscious thoughts, conflict between biological drives and society's demands, and early childhood family experiences.

Humanistic Approach

A psychological approach emphasizing a person's positive qualities, capacity for personal growth, and freedom to choose any destiny.

Cognitive Approach

A psychological approach emphasizing the mental processes involved in knowing: how we attend, perceive, remember, think, and solve problems.

Theory

A broad idea or set of closely related principles that attempts to explain observations and make predictions.

Operational Definition

An objective description of how a variable will be measured and observed in a specific study.

Correlation Coefficient ($r$)

A numerical statistic ranging from $-1.00$ to $+1.00$ that indicates the strength and direction of a relationship between two or more variables.

Independent Variable (IV)

The manipulated factor in an experimental research design.

Dependent Variable (DV)

The factor measured for change in an experimental research design.

Random Assignment

The procedure of assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance to reduce systemic bias.

Placebo Effect

Participant outcomes caused by expectations rather than the actual treatment.

Double-Blind Experiment

An experimental procedure where neither experimenters nor participants know who is in the experimental or control group, preventing researcher or participant bias.

Internal Validity

The degree to which changes in the dependent variable are due to the manipulation of the independent variable, free from confounding variables.

External Validity

The degree to which an experimental result applies to the real world.

Action Potential

A brief wave of positive electrical charge that travels down an axon following the all-or-nothing principle.

Synapse

The junction or gap between neurons where neurotransmitters are released.

Sympathetic Nervous System

A branch of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body to mobilize it for action (fight-or-flight).

Parasympathetic Nervous System

A branch of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body (rest-and-digest).

Amygdala

A structure in the limbic system involved in emotional processing, especially fear and aggression.

Hippocampus

A structure in the limbic system responsible for the formation and recall of long-term memories.

Hypothalamus

A limbic system structure that monitors eating, drinking, sex, emotion, stress, and reward to maintain homeostasis.

Corpus Callosum

A large bundle of axons connecting the left and right cerebral hemispheres, allowing them to communicate.

Absolute Threshold

The minimum intensity of stimulus energy needed for a person to detect it $50\%$ of the time.

Weber’s Law

The principle stating that two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount) to be perceived as different.

Trichromatic Theory (Young-Helmholtz)

A theory of color vision proposing that perception is produced by three types of cone receptors in the retina sensitive to red, green, or blue.

Opponent-Process Theory

A theory of color vision stating that cells in the visual system respond to red-green, blue-yellow, and black-white pairs, which explains afterimages.

Circadian Rhythms

Daily behavioral or physiological cycles (such as a $24\text{-hour}$ cycle of sleep/wake, body temperature, and blood pressure) supervised by the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN).

Activation-Synthesis Theory

A theory proposing that dreams are the brain's attempt to make sense of random neural signals generated in the lower brain during REM sleep.

Divided Consciousness Theory (Hilgard)

A theory proposing that hypnosis splits consciousness into two streams: one obedient to the hypnotist, and a hidden observer aware of reality.