Psychology 101 – Midterm Review (Ch. 1-7)

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering key terms and definitions from Chapters 1-7 of the Psychology 101 midterm review.

Psychology

Scientific study of the mind, brain, and behavior in context.

Naturalistic Observation

Research method that records behavior in its natural setting without interference.

Case Study

In-depth analysis of one person, group, or event (e.g., Phineas Gage).

Survey

Self-report method that collects data with questionnaires or interviews.

Social Desirability Bias

Tendency of respondents to answer in socially acceptable ways.

Volunteer Bias

Systematic differences between study volunteers and non-volunteers.

Independent Variable

Factor the experimenter manipulates to examine its effect.

Dependent Variable

Outcome measure that changes in response to the independent variable.

Random Assignment

Procedure that gives every participant an equal chance of any condition.

Correlation

Statistical relationship indicating how two variables change together.

Correlation Coefficient

Number (-1 to +1) showing direction and strength of a correlation.

Dendrites

Branch-like neuron parts that receive signals and carry them to the soma.

Soma (Cell Body)

Neuron center containing the nucleus and maintaining cell life.

Axon

Long fiber that sends action potentials away from the soma.

Myelin Sheath

Fatty insulation on axons that speeds neural transmission.

Terminal Buttons

Axon endings that release neurotransmitters into the synapse.

Thalamus

Brain’s sensory relay station for all senses except smell.

Forebrain

Largest brain region; handles thinking, memory, emotion, sensation.

Midbrain

Brain area for sensory processing, motor control, alertness.

Hindbrain

Lowest brain part; regulates breathing, heartbeat, coordination.

Hippocampus

Temporal-lobe structure essential for forming new long-term memories.

Frontal Lobe

Cortex area for planning, decision-making, movement, speech, emotions.

Parietal Lobe

Cortex area for touch, spatial awareness, body coordination.

Temporal Lobe

Cortex area for hearing, language, memory, emotional responses.

Occipital Lobe

Cortex region that processes visual information.

Sensation

Detection of physical energy by sensory organs.

Perception

Brain’s interpretation of sensory information.

Absolute Threshold

Smallest stimulus intensity that can be detected 50 % of the time.

Difference Threshold

Smallest detectable difference between two stimuli.

Weber’s Law

Just-noticeable difference is a constant proportion of original stimulus.

Sensory Adaptation

Reduced sensitivity to unchanging stimuli over time.

Rods

Retinal receptors for dim light, black-and-white, peripheral vision.

Cones

Retinal receptors for color vision and fine detail.

Feature Detectors

Specialized neurons that respond to specific stimulus features (edges, angles).

Frequency Theory

Pitch theory stating that firing rate of auditory nerve matches sound frequency (low tones).

Place Theory

Pitch theory proposing that location of maximal vibration on basilar membrane codes frequency (mid & high tones).

Olfactory System

Sense of smell; only sensory pathway that bypasses the thalamus.

Kinesthesis

Sense of body position and movement via receptors in muscles and joints.

Vestibular Sense

Inner-ear system that monitors head position and balance.

Divided Attention

Ability to focus on two or more tasks simultaneously.

Altered State of Consciousness

Condition of awareness differing noticeably from normal waking state (e.g., dreaming, hypnosis).

Beta Waves

Fast, low-amplitude brainwaves of alert wakefulness.

Alpha Waves

Slower, rhythmic brainwaves of relaxed wakefulness.

Sleep Spindles

Burst of 12-14 Hz activity characteristic of Stage 2 sleep.

Delta Waves

Large, slow brainwaves of deep sleep (Stages 3 & 4).

REM Sleep

Sleep stage with rapid eye movements, vivid dreams, muscle paralysis.

Freud’s Wish-Fulfillment Theory

View that dreams express unconscious desires and conflicts.

Activation-Synthesis Theory

Dreams are brain’s attempt to make sense of random neural activity.

Information-Processing Theory

Dreaming helps consolidate memories and problem-solve.

Manifest Content

Literal storyline of a dream.

Latent Content

Hidden psychological meaning of a dream.

Nightmare Disorder

Distressing REM dreams that are vividly recalled on awakening.

Sleep Terror Disorder

Intense panic attacks during Stage 3 sleep, usually not remembered.

Mindfulness Meditation

Practice of non-judgmental attention to present-moment experience.

Opiates

Drugs (e.g., morphine) that mimic endorphins and relieve pain.

Classical Conditioning

Learning where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a response.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

Previously neutral stimulus that now triggers a conditioned response.

Spontaneous Recovery

Reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a pause.

Stimulus Generalization

Tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus.

Stimulus Discrimination

Learning to respond only to the conditioned stimulus, not similar ones.

Operant Conditioning

Learning where behavior is strengthened or weakened by consequences.

Positive Reinforcement

Adding a pleasant stimulus to increase behavior.

Negative Reinforcement

Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase behavior.

Positive Punishment

Adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease behavior.

Negative Punishment

Removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease behavior.

Escape Learning

Behavior that ends an ongoing aversive stimulus.

Avoidance Learning

Behavior that prevents an aversive stimulus before it starts.

Primary Reinforcer

Innately satisfying stimulus (food, water, warmth).

Secondary Reinforcer

Learned reward linked to primary reinforcers (money, grades).

Continuous Reinforcement

Rewarding every response; rapid learning but rapid extinction.

Partial Reinforcement

Rewarding some responses; slower learning but greater resistance to extinction.

Fixed Ratio Schedule

Reinforcement after a set number of responses (e.g., every 5th).

Variable Ratio Schedule

Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses (slot machine).

Fixed Interval Schedule

Reinforcement after a fixed amount of time (weekly paycheck).

Variable Interval Schedule

Reinforcement at unpredictable time intervals (pop quizzes).

Insight Learning

Sudden solution realization without trial-and-error.

Encoding

Process of converting information into memory.

Storage

Retention of encoded information over time.

Retrieval

Accessing stored information when needed.

Chunking

Grouping items into meaningful units to aid memory (e.g., phone numbers).

Maintenance Rehearsal

Repetition to keep information active in short-term memory.

Elaborative Rehearsal

Linking new information to existing knowledge for long-term storage.

Memory Consolidation

Physiological process that stabilizes a memory trace after learning.

Procedural Memory

Long-term memory of skills and actions (how-to).

Declarative Memory

Memory of facts and events that can be stated.

Episodic Memory

Declarative memory for personal experiences.

Semantic Memory

Declarative memory for general facts and knowledge.

Flashbulb Memory

Exceptionally vivid memory of an emotionally significant event.

Proactive Interference

Old information disrupts recall of new information.

Retroactive Interference

New information disrupts recall of old information.

Serial Position Effect

Better recall for first (primacy) and last (recency) items in a list.

Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon

Feeling that recall of a word is imminent but incomplete.

Engram

Physical trace of memory in the brain.

Amygdala

Limbic structure critical for emotional processing, especially fear.

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

Long-lasting strengthening of synapses underlying learning.

Thinking

Active process of mentally manipulating information and ideas.

Logical Concept

Category defined by strict rules or features (e.g., triangle).

Natural Concept

Category formed through everyday experience; has fuzzy boundaries.

Algorithm

Step-by-step procedure that guarantees a correct solution.

Heuristic

Cognitive shortcut that speeds problem solving but may err.