Oil and gas

Petroleum Pollution

Contamination of oceans by crude oil and petroleum products from spills, leaks, and runoff. It is toxic to marine organisms, coats feathers/fur reducing insulation and buoyancy, and disrupts food chains. Occurs both in high-profile disasters (e.g., Deepwater Horizon) and chronic minor leaks.

Sources of Petroleum Pollution

Oil drilling operations, tanker shipping, chronic leaks from oil storage, pipelines, and runoff from roads and ports.

Effects of Oil on Marine Life

Oil prevents oxygen exchange and sunlight penetration; toxic hydrocarbons kill plankton, fish, seabirds, and mammals. Long-term effects reduce biodiversity and disrupt ecosystems.

Sustainable Use of Biological Resources

Harvesting ocean resources (fish, shellfish, krill, algae) at rates allowing regeneration, maintaining natural capital and supporting livelihoods over the long term.

Unsustainable Use of Biological Resources

Exploiting oceanic species faster than they can reproduce, leading to population decline, ecosystem imbalance, and biodiversity loss.

Natural Capital

Ocean resources like fish, shellfish, and algae that have economic, ecological, and social value; provides “natural income” when harvested sustainably.

Stakeholder Conflict

Different groups value ocean resources differently: fishing communities prioritize livelihoods; conservationists prioritize biodiversity; governments may focus on revenue.

Non-Renewable Resources

Oil, gas, and coal; finite resources that cannot be replenished within human time scales, requiring careful management to avoid depletion.

Major Oil & Gas Extraction Zones

Gulf of Mexico, North Sea, Persian Gulf; technological advances allow extraction in deeper and harsher environments, e.g., rigs at 2,000–3,500 m water depth.

Oil & Gas Reserve

Deposits of oil or gas that are economically viable to extract (profit from extraction ≥ extraction cost).

Infrastructure for Oil & Gas Extraction

Offshore platforms, pipelines, refineries, storage facilities, and transport networks needed to exploit reserves effectively.

Origin of Oil

Formed from marine microalgae (phytoplankton) buried in seabed sediments hundreds of millions of years ago under anoxic conditions.

Origin of Coal & Gas

Formed from dense forests of land plants, e.g., clubmosses and horsetails, buried under swamp sediments around 300 million years ago, later transformed under heat and pressure.

Anoxic Conditions

Oxygen-depleted environments underwater or in swamps prevent complete decay of biomass, allowing organic-rich sediments to accumulate.

Oil Formation Process

Phytoplankton + sediments → organic-rich sludge → claystone/shale → under heat (65–120°C) and pressure at 2,000–4,000 m depth (“oil window”) → crude oil (hydrocarbons).

Oil Migration & Trapping

Oil moves upward through porous rock until blocked by impermeable layers (salt/clay), accumulates in reservoir rocks (sandstone, limestone). Water is also present and must be separated during production.

Geological Context of Oil

Oil deposits often in ancient seas shifted by continental drift, e.g., South Atlantic basin formed during South America–Africa separation (~120 million years ago).

Coal Formation Process

Burial of swamp forests under sediment; heat and pressure transform plant material into coal; natural gas may also form during coalification.

OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries)

Founded 1960 (Baghdad) by Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Venezuela; coordinates petroleum policies, stabilizes markets, ensures secure oil supply, and secures fair returns for investors.

OPEC Expansion & Membership Changes

Countries like Qatar, Indonesia, Libya, UAE, Algeria, Nigeria, and Congo joined; members can suspend or leave (e.g., Ecuador 2020, Qatar 2019, Angola 2024) due to economic or political reasons.

Economic Benefits of Oil & Gas

Revenue generation (taxes, foreign exchange), employment creation (direct & indirect), regional economic growth, energy security, supply of raw materials for industries, and potential long-term investment (e.g., Norway’s $1.6 trillion Government Pension Fund).

Employment Example

Gulf of Mexico oil industry supports ~345,000 jobs; Aberdeen, Scotland, economically dependent on North Sea oil.

Energy Security Example

UK reduced reliance on foreign oil during 1970s OPEC embargo due to North Sea production.

Raw Material Use

Oil and gas are used for petrol, diesel, plastics, synthetic fibers, textiles, fertilisers, and medicines. ~90% of transport fuels and significant manufacturing rely on oil.

Environmental Risks of Oil & Gas

Oil spills (e.g., Deepwater Horizon 2010 – 4.9 million barrels spilled, $65bn fines, wildlife deaths), chronic pollution, greenhouse gas emissions, climate change, ecosystem degradation, biodiversity loss, long-term damage.

Chronic Pollution

Slow-release pollution from leaks, flaring, and dumping that accumulates over time, affecting ecosystems and human health (“slow violence”).

Artificial Reef Effect

Decommissioned oil rigs act as habitats for species (red snapper, barnacles, corals), enhancing biodiversity; e.g., Gulf of Mexico “Rigs-to-Reefs” program.

Social & Visual Impacts of Oil Infrastructure

Offshore platforms change seascapes, reduce tourism appeal, create noise pollution affecting marine mammals’ communication and navigation.

Trade-Offs in Oil & Gas Exploitation

Economic growth vs environmental sustainability; local community benefits vs broader ecological costs; short-term gains vs long-term climate consequences.

Governance Challenges

Multiple jurisdictions (international waters, EEZs), weak enforcement, corruption, cross-boundary pollution, and conflict over rights complicate management.

Technological Uncertainty

Deep-sea drilling increases risk of accidents, unknown ecological impacts, and operational challenges.

Irreversibility

Deep-sea ecosystem damage may be permanent or extremely slow to recover.

Equity Issues

Benefits often accrue to corporations/governments, while local coastal communities bear environmental costs.

Path Dependency

Heavy investment in fossil fuel infrastructure delays the transition to renewable energy.

Sustainability Tools

Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) and Marine Spatial Planning (MSP) help manage ocean uses, mitigate conflicts, and limit environmental impact.

Blue Economy

Sustainable ocean economy concept: economic use of marine resources combined with conservation goals.

BOGA (Beyond Oil and Gas Alliance)

International coalition launched 2021 at COP26; aims to phase out oil and gas extraction, led by Denmark and Costa Rica.

BOGA Objectives

Ban new exploration licenses, set production end dates, phase out subsidies, provide transition frameworks for workers and regions, encourage global norm-setting.

BOGA Strengths

First initiative to target oil/gas production directly; aligns with IPCC recommendations; bans new offshore drilling in member states; sets normative pressure for others.

BOGA Weaknesses

Small membership, no enforcement power, major producers (UK, US, Saudi Arabia, Norway) not members; global production still rises despite BOGA.

Oil & Gas Impact on Local Economy

Provides employment, stimulates spending and investment, raises living standards; benefits often unevenly distributed; TNCs capture most profits.

Environmental Risks of Deep-Sea Drilling

Deeper extraction increases likelihood of spills, harder clean-up, higher pollution levels (up to 3× conventional crude), and irreversible ecosystem damage.

Opportunities from Oil Rigs

Artificial reefs can enhance biodiversity locally; red snapper, corals, shellfish benefit from stable structures.

Overall Judgement of Ocean Oil & Gas Use

Without sustainable management, environmental and social harm outweigh economic benefits; extraction pressures increase with population growth and energy demand, threatening oceans and biodiversity.