Feminist Theories Of Religion

What do many feminists regard religion as?

A patriarchal institution that reflects and perpetuates this inequality. Religious beliefs function as a patriarchal ideology that legitimates female subordination.

Although the formal teachings of religions often stress equality between the sexes, what is there considerable evidence of?

Patriarchy within many of them.

What are the different parts of religion where evidence of patriarchy has been seen?

• Religious organisations.

• Places of worship.

• Sacred texts.

• Religious laws and customs.

What evidence of patriarchy is there in religious organisations?

These are mainly male denominated, despite the fact that women often participate more than men in these organisations. For example, Orthodox Judaism and Catholosicm forbid women to become priests.

What does Armstrong see the exclusion of women from priesthood as?

Evidence of women’s marginalisation.

What evidence of patriarchy is there in places of worship?

They often segregate the sexes and marginalise women, for example seating them behind screens while the men occupy the central and more sacred areas. Women’s participation may be restricted, for example not being able to preach or read from sacred texts. Taboos that regard menstruation, pregnancy and childbirth as polluting may also prevent participation.

What does Holm describe the treatment of women in places of worship as?

The devaluation of women in religion.

What evidence of patriarchy is there in sacred texts?

These largely feature the doings of male Gods, prophets, etc, and are usually written and interpreted by men. Stories often reflect anti-female stereotypes, such as that of Eve who, in the Judaeo0 Christian story of Genesis, caused humanity’s fall from grace and expulsion from the Garden of God.

What evidence of patriarchy is there in religious laws and customs?

These may give women fewer rights than men, for example in access to divorce, how many spouses they may marry, decision making, dress codes, etc.

What may religious influences on cultural norms lead to?

Unequal treatments, such as genital mutilation or punishments for sexual transgressions.

What do many religions regulate and legitimate?

Women’s  traditional domestic and reproductive role. For example, the Catholic Church bans abortion and artifical contraception.

What does Woodhead argue?

That the exclusion of women from the Catholic priesthood is evidence of the Church’s deep unease about the emancipation of women generally.

In contrast, what else do feminists argue about women in religion?

That women have not always been subordinate to men within religion.

What does Armstrong argue?

That early religions often placed women at the centre. For example, earth mother goddesses, fertility cults and female priesthoods were found throughout the Middle East until about 6000 years ago.

From about 4000 years ago, what happened with the rise of monotheistic religions?

They saw the establishment of a single, all-powerful male God.

While religion may be used to oppress women, what does El Saadawi argue?

That it not the direct cause of their subordination. Rather, this is the result of patriarchal forms of society coming into existence in the last few thousand years. Once in existence, patriarchy began to influence and re-shape religion. For example, men interpreted religious beliefs in ways that favoured patriarchy. Thus religion now contributes to the oppression of women.

Like Armstrong, what does El Saadawi see the rise of monotheism as?

Legitimating the power of men over women.

What does Woodhead criticise?

Feminist explanations that simply equate religion with the patriarchy and the oppression of women. While accepting that much traditional religion is patriarchy, she emphasises that this is not true of all religions and argues there are ‘religious forms of religion‘ 0 ways in which women can use religion to gain greater freedom and respect.

What example does Woodhead to emphasise religious forms of religion?

The hijab or veil worn by many Muslim women. While westernist feminists tend to see it as a symbol of oppression, to the wearer it may be a means of liberation.

What does Gilliat-Ray argue?

That some young British Muslim women choose to wear the hijab in order to gain parental approval to enter further education and especially employment, where Muslim women’s presence has traditionally been problematic. For them, the hijab is a symbol of liberation that allows them to enter the public sphere without being condemned as immodest.

What do women also use religion to gain?

Status and respect for their riles within the private sphere of the home and family.

What did Brusco find?

That in Colombia, belonging to a Pentecostal group can be empowering for some women. Despite the strong belief in traditional gender roles that such groups hold, women are able to use religion to increase their power.

In the Colombian Pentecostal groups, what do women make use of?

Activities linked to the church, such as bible study experiences to share experiences and find support.

What does Rinaldo see the pattern of the ‘Pentecostal gender paradox‘ as?

Typical of ‘piety movements‘. These are conservative movements that support traditional teachings about women’s role, modest dress, prayer and Bible study.

What does Rinaldo argue?

That even with conservative religions, women may sometimes find ways to further their own interests.

What are liberal Protestant organisations, such as the Quakers, often committed to?

Gender equality and women playing leading roles.