Understanding Psychological Disorders and Therapy

Symptom

a physical or mental feature that may be regarded as an indication of a particular condition or psychological disorder

Syndrome

a cluster of physical or mental symptoms that are typical of a particular condition or psychological disorder that tend to occur simultaneously

Prevalence

refers to how widespread a disorder is

Point prevalence

percentage of people in a given population who have a given psychological disorder at a particular point in time

Lifetime prevalence

percentage of people in a certain population who will have a given psychological disorder at any point in their lives

Psychological disorder

clinically significant disturbance in an individual's cognition, emotion regulation, or behavior that reflects a dysfunction in the psychological, biological, or developmental processes underlying mental functioning

Cultural construct

cultural beliefs and values play a role in determining whether a particular set of symptoms is a disorder or variation in a "normal" behaviour

ADHD

Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: disorder that involves impulsivity, hyperactivity (e.g., fidgeting, inability to sit still), and difficulty shifting attentional focus

Stigma of ADHD labels

Labels carry stigma, can contribute to social exclusion, stereotyping, discrimination, shift in self-concept & potential for self-fulfilling prophecies

Pharmacological treatments for ADHD

ADHD treated with stimulant methylphenidate, which can be addictive and pose long-term side effects

DSM-5

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Psychological Disorders (DSM-5) provides specific definitions and criteria for diagnosis of different psychological disorders

Clinical assessment

procedure for gathering the information to evaluate an individual's psychological functioning and to determine whether a clinical diagnosis is warranted

Clinical interview

interview in which a clinician asks the patient to describe his or her problems and concerns

Self-report measures

standardized clinical assessment consisting of fixed set of questions that a patient answers

Projective tests

A form of clinical assessment in which a person responds to unstructured or ambiguous stimuli; it is thought that responses reveal unconscious wishes and conflicts

Diathesis-stress model

A model of clinical disorders suggesting that certain factors provide a susceptibility for a disorder that will manifest as symptoms only in certain circumstances

Anxiety

feeling of intense worry, nervousness, or unease involving anticipation of danger

Comorbidity

occurrence of two or more disorders in a single individual at a given point in time

Concordance rate

probability that a person with a particular familial relationship to a patient has the same disorder as patient

Specific phobia

a pronounced fear of or anxiety about a particular object or situation (e.g., spiders, snakes, heights, blood, flying)

Classical conditioning

~40% of people with phobias report a traumatic situation where they first acquired the fear

Observational learning

May develop phobias through observation & imitation

Preparedness

may be biologically predisposed to form connections between certain stimuli (e.g., spiders, snakes) that have historically posed a threat & fear

Social anxiety disorder

characterized by extreme fear of being watched, evaluated, and judged by others

Panic attack

sudden episode of intense, uncontrollable anxiety & autonomic arousal in the absence of real threat

Panic disorder

anxiety disorder characterized by repeated panic attacks & debilitating fear of future attacks

Agoraphobia

fear of being in situations in which help might not be available or escape might be difficult or embarrassing

Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)

anxiety disorder characterized by continuous, pervasive, and difficult-to-control anxiety that is not correlated with particular objects or situations

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)

an anxiety disorder that manifests itself through obsessions and compulsion

Obsession

a recurrent unwanted or disturbing thought

Compulsion

a ritualistic action performed to control an obsession

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

psychological disorder triggered by an event that involves actual or threatened death, serious injury, or sexual violence

Mood Disorders

Psychological disorders characterized by emotional extremes.

Major Depressive Disorder

Mood disorder characterized by prolonged feelings of sadness, worthlessness, emptiness and anhedonia

Anhedonia

Diminished interest or pleasure in nearly all of the activities that usually provide pleasure (eg., eating, spending time with friends, sex)

Rumination

Continuous focus on emotional pain without active problem-solving

Explanatory Style

Cognitive style that determines how individuals explain adverse events

Explanatory Style - Internal

blaming oneself ("it's my fault")

Explanatory Style - Global

generalizing problem to all aspects of life ("everything is ruined")

Explanatory Style - Stable

believing problem is unchangeable ("it will always be like this")

Diathesis-Stress Model

stressful experiences interact with individual predisposition factors

Serotonin

long-considered key player in mood regulation, but precise role is debated

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)

effective for treating depression (effective for anxiety as well)

Bipolar Disorder

Mood-related disorder characterized by both manic (excited and energetic) episodes and depressive episodes

Mania

State of high excitement and energy often characterized by racing thoughts, a feeling of invincibility or omnipotence, and a lack of boundaries or inhibitions

Hypomania

a mild form form of mania marked by high spirits, happiness, self-confidence, and a high level of nervous energy

Acute Mania

occurs when feelings of invincibility are replaced by terror as a person loses their grip on reality

Risk Factors for Suicide

Factors increasing likelihood of suicidal behavior.

Schizophrenia

psychological disorder characterized by a loss of contact with reality and pronounced disturbance in thinking, perceptions, emotion, and actions

Positive Symptoms

behaviours that are not present in healthy people

Negative Symptoms

absence of behaviours usually seen in healthy people

Delusions

False, unrealistic beliefs that are rigidly maintained despite overwhelming contradictory evidence-for example:

Hallucinations

Sensory experiences, such as sights and sounds, that happen in the absence of any true sensory input

Disorganized Behavior

Unusual actions not typically seen in healthy individuals.

Catatonic Behavior

standing or sitting "frozen" for hours on end, sometimes in unusual postures

Dopamine Hypothesis

Schizophrenia arises from an abnormally high level of activity in brain circuits that are sensitive to the neurotransmitter dopamine

Concordance rates

Higher similarity in schizophrenia among monozygotic twins.

Prenatal risk factors

Maternal health issues affecting fetal brain development.

Psychosocial risk factors

Socioeconomic and stress factors increasing schizophrenia risk.

Personality disorders

Enduring patterns deviating from cultural expectations.

Cluster A

Personality disorders with odd or eccentric behavior.

Cluster B

Personality disorders with dramatic or emotional behavior.

Cluster C

Personality disorders characterized by anxious behavior.

Antisocial Personality Disorder

Pattern of disregard for others' rights and empathy.

Frontal lobe activation

Lower activity linked to antisocial behavior.

Dissociative Identity Disorder

psychological disorder characterized by presence of multiple distinct personality states within the same person

Posttraumatic model

Dissociation as a coping mechanism for trauma.

Sociocognitive model

DID symptoms influenced by therapist suggestions.

Historical treatments

Evolving methods reflecting understanding of mental disorders.

Psychoanalysis

method of therapy, developed by Sigmund Freud, for uncovering unconscious conflicts, often rooted in childhood, that contribute to clinical symptoms

Free association

encourage patient to say whatever comes to mind without censoring themselves

Transference analysis

interpretation of the way the patient's feelings, expectations, and behaviours towards the therapist may reflect patterns from their significant relationships

Client-centered therapy

Therapist's genuineness, unconditional positive regard, and empathic understanding are crucial to therapeutic success

Behavioral approaches

Therapies based on learning principles.

Exposure techniques

Reduce anxiety through repeated exposure to stimuli.

Systematic desensitization

Progressive exposure to feared stimulus combined with periods relaxation

Token economies

Reinforcement of behaviors with exchangeable tokens.

Vicarious reinforcement

Learning through observing rewards given to others.

Cognitive approaches

Focus on changing maladaptive thought patterns.

ABC model

Links activating events, beliefs, and consequences.

Negative cognitive triad

Negative views of self, world, and future.

Cognitive restructuring

Therapist challenges maladaptive beliefs constructively.

All-or-nothing thinking

Viewing situations in black-and-white terms.

Overgeneralization

Applying one negative experience to all situations.

Disqualifying the positive

Ignoring positive experiences as flukes.

Emotional reasoning

Believing feelings reflect reality accurately.

Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT)

Combines cognitive and behavioral therapeutic techniques.

Third wave therapies

Focus on acceptance of thoughts, not modification.

Acceptance and Commitment Therapy

Encourages commitment to valued goals despite thoughts.

Randomized control trials

Compare treatment groups against control for validity.

Wait-list control condition

Delays treatment for comparison with immediate therapy.

Double-blind study

Participants and researchers unaware of group assignments.

Dodo Bird Verdict

All psychotherapies are equally effective.

Therapeutic alliance

Emotional bond between client and therapist.

Fostering hope

Therapy helps clients feel symptoms are treatable.