Unit 2: Linkage Institutions

12th Amendment

Modified the Electoral College to separate votes for President and Vice President (preventing a tie or opposing parties on the same ticket).

15th Amendment

Prohibits the denial of suffrage based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude.

17th Amendment

Established the direct election of U.S. Senators by the people of the states (previously elected by state legislatures).

19th Amendment

Prohibits the denial of suffrage based on gender (Women's suffrage).

23rd Amendment

Grants Washington D.C. electors in the Electoral College (currently 3).

24th Amendment

Prohibits the use of poll taxes in federal elections.

26th Amendment

Lowered the voting age from 21 to 18.

Political parties

Seek to win elections and control government; broad focus.

Interest groups

Seek to influence policy; narrow focus; do not run candidates.

Political parties constitutional connection

Political parties are not mentioned in the Constitution. Washington warned against "factions" in his Farewell Address.

Organization of political parties

Decentralized and fragmented. National committees exist, but state and local parties have significant independence.

party platforms

A formal set of principal goals and policy stances supported by a political party/candidate.

critical elections

An election that signals a party realignment through voter polarization around new issues (e.g., 1860, 1932).

minor (third) parties

Contributions: Bring new issues to the agenda (innovator role), "safety valve" for discontent.
Barriers to Success: Winner-take-all system, single-member districts, difficulty getting on ballots, lack of funding.

Primary elections

Election to narrow down the field of candidates within a party.

General elections

Election where voters choose between party nominees for office.

Open primary

Voters can decide on Election Day which party’s primary to vote in.

Closed Primary

Only registered party members may vote in that party's primary.

Voting registration control

Primarily controlled by State Governments (determines rules, deadlines, ID requirements), though subject to federal guidelines (e.g., Motor Voter Act).

Retrospective voting

Voting based on the past performance of a candidate/party.

prospective voting

Voting based on predictions of how a candidate/party will perform in the future.

political efficacy

The belief that one's political participation really matters and that one vote can make a difference.

Electoral college

The body that formally selects the President. States are awarded votes based on representation (House + Senate). Needs 270 to win.

Problems w/ the electoral college

1. Winner of the popular vote can lose the presidency.

2. Candidates focus only on "swing states."

3. Small states are overrepresented mathematically.

Federal Election Campaign Act (FECA)

Created the FEC; required disclosure of donor information; placed limits on campaign contributions.

Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (BCRA)

Also known as McCain-Feingold. Banned Soft Money to national parties and increased limits on Hard Money.

Citizens United v. FEC (2010)

Ruled that political spending by corporations and unions is a form of protected speech under the 1st Amendment. Allowed unlimited independent expenditures (led to SuperPACs).

Hard Money

Political contributions given to a party, candidate, or interest group that are limited in amount and fully disclosed.

Soft Money

Unlimited funds contributed to political parties for "party building" activities (banned at federal level by BCRA).

Dark Money

Political spending by nonprofit groups (501c) that do not have to disclose their donors.

PAC (Political Action Committees)

Groups registered with the FEC that raise money from individuals to donate to candidates (strict limits apply).

SuperPACs

Independent expenditure-only committees; may raise unlimited sums from corporations/unions but cannot coordinate with candidates.

527 groups

Tax-exempt groups created to influence the nomination/election of candidates; not regulated by the FEC as long as they don't explicitly advocate for a specific candidate.

501© groups

Non-profit groups exempted from reporting their contributions; can receive unlimited contributions (Dark Money vehicles).

Federalist #10

Madison argued that factions (interest groups) are inevitable but their effects can be controlled by a large republic with many competing interests (pluralism).

Iron Triangles

The stable, cooperative relationship between a Congressional Committee, an Administrative Agency (Bureaucracy), and an Interest Group.

Lobbying

The strategy by which organized interests seek to influence the passage of legislation by exerting direct pressure on government officials.

Lobbying Congress

Providing technical information to legislators, helping draft legislation, testifying at hearings.

Lobbying the Executive Branch

Focusing on regulatory agencies to influence how laws are implemented and regulations are written.

Lobbying the Supreme Court

Using Amicus Curiae Briefs ("Friend of the Court") to influence decisions; influencing judicial nominations.

Amicus Curiae Briefs

Legal briefs submitted by a "friend of the court" for the purpose of influencing a court's decision by raising additional points of view.

Free Rider Problem

The problem faced by interest groups (like unions) when people do not join because they can benefit from the group's activities without paying dues.

Agenda Setting Goal

The media’s ability to determine which issues are considered important by the public and politicians (telling people what to think about).

Framing

The way an issue is posed or presented by the media, which can significantly affect decisions and judgments.

Horse Race Journalsim

Election coverage that focuses on who is ahead or behind in the polls rather than on the candidates' policy positions.

Media Effects

The influence of news sources on public opinion (can reinforce beliefs or sway undecided voters).

Consolidation of Media

A process where fewer individuals or organizations control increasing shares of the mass media (leads to less diversity in viewpoints).

New York Times v. United States (1971)

"Pentagon Papers Case." The Court ruled that the government could not block the publication of secret defense documents (Doctrine of No Prior Restraint).