the cognitive approach

Describe assumption 1

Computer analogy

• the human mind is compared to a computer as we take in information (input), process and store it (process), and recall it when needed (output)

• Mental processes like perception, attention and memory are involved in the processing stage

What are the three assumptions

• the computer analogy

• Internal mental processes

• schemas

Assumption 1 comp 3 example

computer analogy - ASD

• Where the processing stage works differently and things such as sensory information is processed in an atypical way

• like a computer who’s software processes information differently even though the hardware (brain) is still functioning

Explain assumption 2

internal mental processes

• These work together to help us understand and respond to the world

• Key processes include attention, memory and language

• E.g when recognising a dog we focus on its feature, perceive them, search our memory for a match and use language to name it

• introspection can be used to measure internal mental processes

Assumption 2 comp 3 example

internal mental processes - criminal behaviour

• can be as a result of information- processing bias

• Criminals may misperceive social clues such as misinterpreting a neutral comment as a threat and recall agressive responses from the past

Describe assumption 3

Schemas

• mental frameworks that are developed from past experiences

• yet don’t always reflect reality as they are often shaped by social influences like the media

• Event schemas guide our expectations for specific situations such as going to a restaurant

• role schemas help us understand different roles such as nurse

Assumption 3 comp 3 example

Schemas - relationship formation

• self-schemas mean that we are attracted to people that we perceive as similar to us in physical attractiveness

What is the therapy

CBT - Cognitive behavioural therapy

What are the 3 components of CBT

• dysfunctional thought diary

• Cognitive restructuring

• Pleasant activity scheduling

Intro of describe CBT 10 marker

• Can link to assumption 2 which is ‘internal mental processes’

• Because faulty internal mental processes can maintain disorders such as depression and CBT helps clients challenge these distorted thoughts

Describe the first component of CBT

dysfunctional thought diary

• part of the clients homework and it aims at identifying and challenging automatic negative thoughts (ANTs)

• Step 1 - record the event

• where clients note the situation that led to their unpleasant emotions

• Step 2 - identify the negative thoughts

• where clients write down the ANTs associated with the event and rate their belief in the thought as a percentage

• Step 3 - write a rational response

• where clients challenge their negative thoughts by seeing the positive alternatives and write a rational response

• Step 4 - re-rate the negative thoughts

• where clients revisit the original thought and re-rate their belief in it

Describe the second component of CBT

cognitive restructuring

• which is designed to help clients replace the ANTs with more balanced thinking

• This is often achieved through Socratic questioning where the therapist asks open-ended questions such as “where is the evidence for that thought”

• Together they work to reframe thoughts and develop more positive alternatives

• They are encouraged to apply this outside of therapy which helps to break the negative cognitive triad where individuals have persistently negative views about themselves and the world

Describe the third component of CBT

pleasant activity scheduling

• this technique encourages clients to plan one pleasant activity each day over the course of a week to provide a sense of accomplishment such as classes at the gym or reading a book

• The idea is that engaging in enjoyable activities will promote positive emotions and shift focus away from negative thought patterns

• Clients are asked to record their experiences and how they felt and if things don’t go as planned they are encouraged to explore why and consider adjustments for next time

evaluate the effectiveness of CBT 10 marker

+research support

• Cuijpers found that individuals receiving CBT alongside antidepressants had a significantly better response than those on antidepressants alone, this shows how CBT can improve symptoms by targeting negative thoughts not just biology, increases validity as it shows CBT works in real life

-therapist competence

• Zettle found that more competent therapists achieved better outcomes, uneven treatment outcomes, decreases reliability as not every therapist provided the same quality

-individual differences

• Simons et al found that CBT is less effective for individuals with rigid irrational beliefs, may not work well for everyone, decreases reliability as it depends on the individuals personality traits

-treats the symptoms not the underlying cause

• it focuses on automatic negative thoughts and not treating the underlying cause e.g childhood trauma

evaluate the effectiveness of CBT main points

+research support

-therapist competence

-individual differences

-treats the symptoms not the underlying cause

evaluate the ethics of CBT

+empowerment

• research shows that individuals continue to use CBT techniques years after treatment ends, shows that it empowers individuals to take control and manage their mental health, increases ecological validity (real world) as it has a lasting impact

-patient blaming

• assumes patients are responsible for their thoughts and behaviour, potentially overlooks situational factors such as life events or family problems, reduces ethical acceptability as it could cause harm to the clients emotional wellbeing

-what counts as ‘irrational thinking’

• depressive realists were more accurate than non depressive individuals in predicting negative outcomes, some negative thoughts considered ‘irrational’ by therapists may actually reflect reality, reduces construct validity if some thoughts are actually accurate reflections

-invalidation of feelings

• encouraging clients to challenge the negative thoughts may make some people feel like their emotions or experiences are being dismissed

evaluate the ethics of CBT main points

+empowerment

-patient blaming

-what counts as ‘irrational thinking’

-invalidation of feelings

what is the classical evidence

Loftus and Palmer

describe the methodology of Loftus and Palmer

• it was a laboratory experiment with an independent measures design

• in both experiments the independent variable was the verb used in the critical question

• in experiment 1 the dependent variable was the estimate of the speed of the vehicle

• in experiment 2 it was whether participants recalled seeing broken glass at the scene

• there was 45 student participants in experiment 1 and 150 in experiment 2

describe the procedures of loftus and palmer (experiment 1)

experiment 1:

• it was an opportunity sample

• participants watched 7 short films taken from longer drivers education films

• these were 5-30 seconds long and showed traffic accidents

• they then completed a questionnaire

• in part 1 participants described the accident

• in part 2 participants answered specific questions including the critical one about the speed of the vehicles

• the different verbs were smashed, collided, bumped, hit or contacted

• SIMEON COWELL BIT HIS CHIHUAHUA

• the order of the films was randomised for each group

• the experiment lasted 90 minutes

• 9 participants per verb

describe the procedures of loftus and palmer (experiment 2)

• it was an opportunity sample

• 150 participants were shown a video clip (less than a minute long) of a multiple car crash (4- second accident)

• in the initial questionaire participants described the accident in their own words and were asked about the speeds of the vehicles

• 50 participants were asked “how fast were they going when they smashed into each other?”

• 50 participants were asked the same but using the verb “hit”

• 50 participants were asked no speed-related questions

• 1 week later they had a follow up and were asked 10 questions including the key question “did you see any broken glass?”

• the question was randomly placed and there was no broken glass in the video

describe the findings of loftus and palmer

describe the conclusions of Loftus and Palmer

• it showed that the way a question is worded (for example using different verbs) can strongly affect how a witness answers it

they suggested two possible reasons for this:

• number 1 - response bias, where the wording of a question influences how a person answers it

• number 2 - wording of a question actually changes the persons memory of the event itself

• for example participants who heard the word ‘smashed’ were more likely to incorrectly recall seeing broken glass

• this suggests that their memory had been distorted to make the accident seem more severe

• overall this shows that leading questions can create new, inaccurate memories by combining the orginal memory with the suggestion from the question

evaluate the methodology and procedures of Loftus and Palmer 10 marker

+use of standardised procedures

• all participants watched the same video clips and answered the same questions, research could be repeated and obtain similar results, increases reliability

-sample

• US college students which would have limited driving experience, could influence how they perceive traffic accidents and results only reflect memories of young individuals, limits the generalisability of results

- video clips

• participants watched staged video clips of car accidents rather than witnessing real-life events, may not reflect how memory works in real situations, reduces ecological validity and mundane realism

-demand characteristics

• guessed the aim on the study and altered their response based on the wording of the question e.g smashed may have signalled a higher speed was expected

evaluate the methodology and procedures of Loftus and Palmer main points

+use of standardised procedures

-sample

-video clips

-demand characteristics

evaluate one + and - ethics of Loftus and Palmer 10 marker

+protected from psychological harm

• shown video clips of car accidents rather than witnesssing real accidents, not exposed to potentially traumatic events, increases credibility as it avoided causing participants long-lasting emotional harm, shows research can study sensitive topics without putting participants at risk

-lack of valid consent

• We’re not fully informed that the aim of the study was to investigate the effects of misleading questions on memory, could not make a fully informed decision about taking part, violates the ethical principle of informed consent, ethical guidelines exist to protect participants from being deceived

evaluate one + and - ethics of Loftus and Palmer main points

+protected from psychological harm

-lack of valid consent

evaluate two + social strengths of Loftus and Palmer

+influenced police practices

• Now use techniques such as the cognitive interview and careful phrasing of questions to avoid suggestive questions, eyewitnesses are less likely to form false memories, practical applications in law enforcement to improve the accuracy and fairness of investigations, protects innocent individuals

+shows the risk of unreliable eyewitness testimony

• Birmingham Six Case- 6 men were wrongfully convicted due to unreliable eyewitness evidence, highlights how poor questioning techniques can lead to false memories and wrongful convictions, credibility for helping us to have more faith in the justice system

two + social strengths of Loftus and Palmer Main points

• Influenced police practices

• Shows the risk of unreliable eyewitness testimony

Evaluate the cognitive approach

+practical applications

• applied effectively in CBT to successfully treat disorders such as depression, -

• improves the long term wellbeing, quality of life

• increases external validity as theories have been applied to successfully treat real-life problems

• there’s that improve people’s life are considered stronger than ones that just explain human behaviour

+scientific approach

• memory research has been conducted in strict laboratory conditions using advanced brain scanning techniques e.g PET scans, less extraneous and confounding variables in a controlled laboratory environment, increases internal validity as it will show the exact biological mechanisms behind cognitive processes without potential other factors

• high validity means findings are taken seriously

-determinist approach

• Suggest that our thoughts and behaviour are largely controlled by mental processes such as schemas, implies that we have little room for free will or to challenge our thoughts, reduces validity as it cannot fully explain human behaviour such as choosing to act against stereotypes

-reductionist approach

• compares the human mind to a computer where we input information in a fixed way, oversimplifies complex human behaviour and overlooks other factors such as emotions, genetics or experiences

Evaluate the cognitive approach main points

+practical applications

+scientific approach

-determinist approach

-reductionist approach

What is the debate

• The reliability of Eyewitness testimony

E.g debate - it’s unreliable

Debate intro

Define key terms:

EWT:

• is the account a person provides about an event they have witnessed, often used in criminal cases

• It assumes the brain functions like a computer, processing and storing information and was once the primary basis for criminal cases so it’s reliability is crucial in ensuring justice

Why is it still a debate in 2026?

• juries may not have a clear understanding of how memory works and can lead them to be swayed by an eyewitness

4 sections of the debate

• post event information

• Crimes are emotive experiences

• Child EWT

• memory is reconstructive

+post event information research names (reliability of EWT is poor)

• Sutherland and Hayne

• Meisser

+post event information paragraph (reliability of EWT is poor)

can distort people’s memory potentially leading to the wrong people being convicted

• Sutherland and Hayne - held an experiment where adults watched an event and 24 hours later were exposed to neutral, leading or misleading information about what they had seen and those given misleading post-event information made more memory errors

• False EWT sending innocent people to prison, government spending money on compensation and retrials, could be spent more beneficially e.g NHS cancer treatments

• Meisser et al - 71% of participants in their experiment changed their testimony after talking to others about the event

• Emphasised importance of EW interviewed immediately and kept separate, not wasting police resources and time

-post event information research names

• Loftus

• Memon et al

-post event information paragraph

can still be reliable and send the correct people to prison

• Loftus- used a real-life staged crime of a man stealing a women’s purse and found participants were able to recall key details correctly

• False tests may not provide these results due to demand characteristics, in real situations the right people will be sentenced

• Memon et al- studied the use of the cognitive interview where witnesses were asked to consider multiple perspectives and found that this improved the accuracy of recalled information

• If more police officers are being trained in the cognitive interview it gives people more faith in the judical system, standardised procedures so all EWT are being treated fairly

+crimes are emotive experiences research names

• Freud

• Johnson and Scott

+crimes are emotive experiences paragraph (no convictions should happen)

may have the potential to cause harm when brought back up

• Freuds theory of repression - traumatic events can be unconsciously forgotten and only accessed through prompting which can make details be recalled inaccurately

• Psychological harm e.g PTSD, economical impact if interventions are needed to treat any MH issues

• Johnson and Scott - the presence of a weapon can impair the accuracy of EWT

• their mind is preoccupied on the safety from the weapon, psychological harm if they send an innocent man to prison e.g anxiety and fear that the innocent man will retaliate

-crimes are emotive experiences research names

• Brown and Kiulik

• Sharon et al

-crimes are emotive experiences paragraph

Makes the crimes more memorable so people can give more detail

• Brown and Kiulik - emotionally charged events like the assassination of JFK create flashbulb memories that people recall with vivid detail

• Starting point which saves costs for other resources such as CCTV, DNA tests or forensic investigations

• Sharon et al- people closer to the 911 attacks reported their memories of the events more vividly, confidently and in greater detail

• Easier to identify correct person, saves time that can then be spent finding other criminals, safer society, economical impact of increasing tourism

+child EWT research names

• Cohen and Faulkner

• McMartin Preschool Trial

+child EWT paragraph

the information provided may be unreliable and has the potential to cause psychological harm

• Cohen and Faulkner- children lack the vocabulary and schemas to accurately articulate what they have witnessed

• They may interpret a word wrong, sending an innocent man to prison, psychological harm such as a lack of faith in their own thoughts as they get older

• McMartin Preschool Trial - was interviewing children about alleged abuse which lead to false allegations because of repeated questions

• If the amount of questions prolonged their interview it may give the child a negative experience, could impact their relationship and trust with the judicial system and the police in the future

-Child EWT research names

• April Jones

• Ceci

-child EWT paragraph

child EWT can provide accurate information in identifying criminals if taken seriously

• April Jones - was a 7 year old witness and gave a detailed description of the murderers vehicle helping to identify the suspect

• Capable of providing reliable EWT, potentially as they are not used to lying so cannot distort the facts, innocent minds are more reliable

• Ceci - found children gave accurate accounts in interviews using age-appropriate and non-suggestive questions

• Put time into making the interviews suitable for kids, details given will be more reliable, more children will feel like they can come forward in the future, criminals get the sentencing they deserve

+memory is reconstructive research names

• Central Park

• Yarmey

+memory is reconstructive paragraph

how we perceive and remember events may create certain stereotypes

• In Central Park - 5 black males were abused due to racist assumptions that it ‘must be them’

• More likely to encourage protests and rebellious behaviour as people don’t believe this is right, ultimately create more criminals

• Yarmey - Participants reliably classified unknown males as either ‘good guys’ or ‘bad guys’ showing that people have mental schemas of how criminals look

• If this continues there will be false narratives towards certain demographics, may create bigger stereotypes in society and people losing trust in the justice system as they fear it’s racist

-memory is reconstructive research name

• Yuille and Cutshall

-our même or is reconstructive paragraph

the details stay in your long-term memory

• Yuille and Cutshall - studied EWT to a real-life shooting and found that witnesses could recall details several months later

• EWT can still be reliable on long cases, if the witness needs psychological support first such as counselling for anxiety this can still be given and they can be questioned after

Conclusion research name

• Rape Crisis

Conclusion paragraph

the reliability of EWT is strong enough that convictions should happen based on it

• Rape Crisis- 90% of sexual assaults are committed by someone known to the victim

• The description of the individual will be accurate, the right person will be identified, less people experience psychological harm or trauma from this person in the future

• However this might not always be the case in convictions where the individuals doesn’t know them so it’s useful to have other evidence as well