return degraded environment to historic conditions
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darwin and wallace
proposed evolution by natural selection in the 1860s
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preservation ethic
grew out of romantic-transcendental thoughts; advocated for hands-off, pristine wilderness
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utilitarian conservation ethic
advocated for using natural resources for the benefit of people who live here now
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aldo leopold
wrote the land ethic, which talked about how people are members and citizens of the land which demands respect for it
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rachel carson
observed the loss of bird species and linked the decline in birds to increased pesticides; wrote silent spring in 1962
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rosalie edge
focused on protecting all bird species and founded hawk mountain sanctuary
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william hornaday
realized bison population was plummeting and tried to “preserve” bison by shooting them in order to study them later
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types of science
basic and applied
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basic science
“pure” science expands knowledge regardless of known applications for knowledge
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applied science
aims to use science to solve a known, real-world problem
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biodiversity hotspot
significant reservoir of biodiversity and is threatened with destruction
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latitudinal gradients
general increase in species richness towards tropical latitudes
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cradle of diversity
more diversity begins in the tropics
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museum of diversity
more diversity because of fewer extinction
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hypotheses for latitudinal gradients
stability and energy diversity hypothesis
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stability hypothesis
species continue to develop in areas that have remained stable for longer
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energy diversity hypothesis
warmer areas have higher rates of speciation or lower rates of extinction
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what do both hypotheses for latitudinal gradients suggest?
suggest that the greatest diversity is in the south
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conservation biology
the study of the protection and preservation of the environment
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biological diversity
variety of life
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types of biological diversity
organismal, genetic, and ecological
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organismal diversity
the full taxonomic hierarchy and its components, from individuals, populations, subspecies and species, genera, families, phyla, kingdoms, and domains
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genetic diversity
components of the genetic coding that structures organisms (nucleotides, genes, chromosomes) and variation in the genetic makeup between individuals within and between populations
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ecological diversity
scales of ecological differences from populations, through habitats to ecosystems, ecoregions, provinces, and on up to biomes and biogeographic realms
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species richness
number of species in a community
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species eveness
comparison of relative abundance of species in a community
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diversity index
estimates of species diversity; not every index shows the exact same patterns
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endemic species
species the live in a limited geographic area
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phylogenetic diversity
calculation of the branch length sums in a phylogenetic tree
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biomes
geographical region with communities adapted to local climate (temperature and precipitation)
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ecoregion
large unit of land or water containing a geographically distinct assemblage of species, natural communities, and environmental conditions
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ecosystem services
the conditions and processes through which natural ecosystems and the species that make them up, sustain and fulfill human life
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millennium ecosystem assessment
largest assessment of the health of Earth’s ecosystems; popularized the term ecosystem services
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what are the ecosystem services?
provisioning services, regulating services, supporting services, cultural services
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provisioning services
products obtained from ecosystems → food, water, raw material, medicinal resources
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regulating services
benefits obtained from the regulation of ecosystem processes → climate, natural hazard regulations, erosion
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supporting services
services necessary for the production of all other ecosystem services → lifecycle maintenance, biodiversity protection
studying the chemical, physical, geological, and biological processes near the surface of the Earth
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solution to tragedy of the commmons
international ban, taxes and fees, cap and trade, engage more local governments
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kunming-montreal global biodiversity framework
23 action-oriented global targets for urgent action over the decade to 2030
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ecosystem functioning
the collective life activity of all plants, animals, and microbes and the effects of these activities (feeding, growing, moving, excreting, etc) have on the physical and chemicals conditions of their environment
the spatial separation of habitats that previously were connected
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habitat fragmentation examples
land conversion to agriculture, urbanization, dams, water diversions, pollution, invasive species, deforestation
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anthromes
anthropogenic biomes
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corridor
a habitat that connects isolated patches of habitat that are otherwise inaccessible
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patch
habitat separated from the surrounding matrix
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structural connectivity
connectivity from a land or seascape perspective
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functional connectivity
connectivity from a species perspective
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concerns from connectivty
invasive species movement, disease, predation, edge effects
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value of corridors in conservation
ethics, economics, social concerns, politics
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theory of island biogeography
describes how island size and isolation determine population colonization success; large islands sustain larger populations than small ones and experience a lower extinction risk
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endangered species act
provides a program for the conservation of threatened and endangered plants and animals and the habitats in which they are found
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threatened species
a species likely to become endangered in the foreseeable future in a substantial part of its home range
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endangered species
a species currently in danger of extinction
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how is the ESA implemented?
terrestrial species are protected by the US fish and wildlife service and marine species are protected by NOAA’s National Marine Fisheries Service
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keystone species
species that have a disproportionately large impact on an environment compared to their biomass
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trophic cascade
how species, like a predator, interacts with the whole food web, including the plant and herbivores
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chronic wasting disease
neurological illness found at feedlots outside of Jackson Hole where elk have been since 1912
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what animals are likely to go locally extinct?
historic loss of very large organisms, while small organisms have fewer species threatened
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defaunation
global, local, or functional extinction of animal population/species in which large species are lost first
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tragedy of the commons
refers to a situation in which individuals with access to a public resource act in their own interest and, in doing so, ultimately deplete the resource
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greenhouse gases
gases that trap heat in the atmosphere
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CO2
carbon dioxide
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CH4
methane, which is released by cows, a by-product of natural resources, and produced by flares at landfills
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N2O
nitrous oxide, which is a by-product of the production of chemicals for fertilizers
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SF6
fluorinated gases like sulfur hexafluoride
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ocean acidification
human activity raises CO2 levels in the air, which leads to more dissolved CO2, which leads to decreased pH, which leads to the ocean being more acidic
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extreme weather
* small shifts can make a difference * Ex: more extreme rainfall because more heat = more evaporation = more moisture clouds forming = more rain
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greenland
melting over land and icebergs calving off
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antarctica
ice shelves form with subglacial melting and calving off the shelf
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ice shelf
ice attached to a coastline, fed by glaciers, extending over the ocean
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ice shelf purpose
act as breaks to slow down the movement of glaciers coming from the main ice sheet
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iceberg
a large piece of floating ice from a glacier
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sea ice
frozen saltwater that formed on and floats on the ocean surface (not from land glaciers)
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sea ice purpose
regulates heat, moisture, and salinity in polar oceans, as well as provides habitat for organisms
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first-year sea ice
has not survived a summer melt
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multi-year sea ice
thicker with more ice growing on the underside
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biomonitoring
using biological organisms in the environment to infer the habitat quality
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biomonitoring example
birds in the presence of DDT
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clean water act and bioassessment
includes restoring and maintaining the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the Nation’s waters
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healthy stream meaning
when we say healthy, we usually mean the ecosystem is similar to a natural ecosystem with a balanced, integrated, adaptive community of organisms with varied composition, diversity, and functional groups present
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substrate
bottom type
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smothering
silt and rocks covering larger rocks
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silting
clay and silt covering the entire stream, causing high turbidity
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sinuosity of channels
curviness of channels
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oxbow
U-shaped bend
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oxbow lake
lake formed when an oxbow is cut off from the main stream
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oxbow scar
dried oxbow lake
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riffles and runs
areas where current is fast/turbulent, and the surface may be broken