Openstax Psychology Chapter 14

Stimulus-based definitions

characterize stress as a stimulus that causes certain reactions; fails to recognize that people differ in how they view and react to challenging life events and situations

Response-based definitions

describe stress as a response to environmental conditions

Hans Selye's definition of stress

response of the body to any demand, whether it is caused by, or results in, pleasant or unpleasant conditions

Stress

a process whereby an individual perceives and responds to events that he appraises as overwhelming or threatening to his well-being

Stressors

events that may be judged as demanding or threatening events; stimuli that initiate the stress process

Primary Appraisal

judgement about the degree of potential harm or threat to well-being that a stressor might entail; challenge or threat?

Secondary Appraisal

judgement of the options available to cope with a stressor, as well as perceptions of how effective such options will be

Eustress

a good kind of stress associated with positive feelings, optimal health, and performance; Selye's term

Distress

when stress is no longer a positive force and become excessive and debilitating

Health Psychology

a subfield of psychology devoted to understanding the importance of psychological influences on health, illness, and how people respond when they become ill; how stress impacts health falls here

Walter Cannon

American physiologist; first to identify the body's physiological reactions to stress; named the fight-or-flight response

Fight-or-flight Response

occurs when a person experiences very strong emotions--especially those associated with a perceived threat; body is aroused by activation of both the sympathetic nervous system and the endocrine system

General Adaptation Syndrome

the body's nonspecific physiological response to stress; discovered by Hans Selye; 3 stages:

1. Alarm reaction

2. Stage of resistance

3. Stage of exhaustion

Alarm reaction

the body's immediate reaction upon facing a threatening situation or emergency

Stage of resistance

the initial shock of alarm reaction has worn off and the body has adapted to the stressor

Stage of exhaustion

the person is no longer able to adapt to the stressor: the body's ability to resist becomes depleted as physical wear takes its toll on the body's tissues and organs

Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis

set of structures found in both the limbic system and the endocrine system that regulate many of the body's physiological reactions to stress through the release of hormones

Cortisol

the stress hormone; helps provide that boost of energy when we first encounter a stressor, preparing us to run away or fight

Chronic stressors

include events that persist over an extended period of time

Acute stressors

involve brief focal events that sometimes continue to be experienced as overwhelming well after the event has ended

PTSD

a chronic stress reaction characterized by experiences and behaviors that may include intrusive and painful memories of the stressor event, jumpiness, persistent negative emotional states, detachment from others, angry outbursts, and avoidance of reminders of the event

Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS)

Thomas Holmes and Richard Rahe; consists of 43 life events that require varying degrees of personal readjustment

Daily hassles

the minor irritations and annoyances that are part of our everyday lives

Job Strain

a work situation that combines excessive job demands and workload with little discretion in decision making or job control; often low status jobs

Job Burnout

a general sense of emotional exhaustion and cynicism in relation to one's job; 3 dimensions:

1. Exhaustion

2. Depersonalization

3. Diminished personal accomplishment

Psychophysiological Disorders

Physical disorders or diseases whose symptoms are brought about or worsened by stress and emotional factors.

Types of Psychophysiological Disorders

Cardiovascular, Gastrointestinal, Respiratory, Musculoskeletal, and Skin

Franz Alexander

postulated that various diseases are caused by specific unconscious conflicts (asthma coupled with separation anxiety)

Freidman and Booth-Kewley

proposed the existence of disease-prone personality characteristics

Immune System

the body's surveillance system

Immunosuppression

the decreased effectiveness of the immune system (when the immune system breaks down)

Psychoneuroimmunology

the field that studies how psychological factors such as stress influence the immune system and immune functioning; term coined in 1981

Lymphocytes

white blood cells that circulate in the body's fluids that are important in the immune response

Cardiovascular Disorders

disorders that involve the heart and blood circulation system

Heart Disease

adverse heart conditions that involve the heart's arteries or valves or those involving the inability of the heart to pump enough blood to meet the body's needs; can include heart attack and stroke

Angina

chest pains or discomfort that occur when the heart does not receive enough blood

Hypertension

high blood pressure; called the"silent killer" because it has no symptoms

Type A

psychological and behavior pattern exhibited by individuals who tend to be extremely competitive, impatient, rushed, and hostile toward others

Type B

psychological and behavior pattern exhibited by a person who is relaxed and laid back

Most important factor in the development of heart disease in Type A

the anger/hostility dimension

Chida and Steptoe

concluded that the bulk of evidence suggests that anger and hostility constitute serious long-term risk factors fir adverse cardiovascular outcomes among both healthy individuals and those already suffering from heart disease

Negative Affectivity

a tendency to experience distressed emotional states involving anger, contempt, disgust, guilt, fear, and nervousness

Benjamin Malzberg

the first to recognize the link between depression and heart disease

Asthma

a chronic and serious disease in which the airways of the respiratory system become obstructed, leading to great difficulty expelling air from the lungs

Coping

mental and behavioral efforts that we use to deal with problems relating to stress, including its presumed cause and the unpleasant feelings and emotions it produces

Lazarus and Folkman

distinguished two kinds of coping: problem-focused coping and emotion-focused coping

Problem-focused coping

attempt to manage or alter the problem that is causing one to experience stress

Emotion-focused coping

consists of efforts to change or reduce the negative emotions associated with stress. May include avoiding or distancing oneself from the problem, or positive comparisons with others, or seeking something positive in a negative event

Albert Bandura

"the intensity and chronicity of human stress is governed largely by perceived control over the demands of one's life"

Perceived Control

our beliefs about our personal capacity to exert influence over and shape outcomes, and has major implications for our health and happiness

Martin Seligman

conducted a series of experiments in which dogs were placed in a chamber where they received electric shocks from which they could not escape. Later, when these dogs were given the opportunity to escape, most failed to even try; dogs who were previously allowed to escape tended to jump the partition and escape

Social Support

the soothing impact of friends, family, and acquaintances

Relaxation Response Technique

developed by Herbert Benson; it combines relaxation with transcendental meditation, and consists of four components:

1. sitting upright in a chair w/ feet on the ground

2. a quiet environment w/ eyes closed

3. repeating a mantra

4. passively allowing the mind to focus on pleasant thoughts

Biofeedback

developed by Gary Schwarts; a technique that uses electronic equipment to accurately measure a person's neuromuscular and autonomic activity--feedback is provided in the form of visual or auditory signals

Three elements of happiness

the pleasant life, the good life, and the meaningful life

Pleasant Life

is realized through the attainment of day-to-day pleasures that add excitement to our lives

Good Life

achieved through identifying our unique skills and abilities and engaging these talents to enrich our lives

Meaningful Life

contributing to the greater good

Happiness

an enduring state of mind consisting of joy, contentment, and other positive emotions, plus the sense that one's life has meaning and value.

Factors connected to happiness

Family and other social relationships; education shows a positive correlation, but intelligence is not appreciably related to happiness; religious people in nations with difficult living conditions are happier; the extent that people possess characteristics that are highly valued by their culture

Positive Psychology

the science of happiness; an area of study that seeks to identify and promote those qualities that lead to greater fulfillment in our lives; Seligman urged it

Positive Affect

pleasurable engagement with the environment, the dimensions of which include happiness, joy, enthusiasm, alertness, and excitement

Optimism

the general tendency to look on the bright side of things

Flow

a particular experience that is so engaging and engrossing that it becomes worth doing for its own sake