Human Reproduction and Immune System Concepts

A comprehensive set of flashcards designed to aid in the understanding of human reproduction and the immune system, encompassing key concepts and terminology.

What is the primary hormone responsible for triggering ovulation in females?

Luteinizing hormone (LH)

What hormone, produced by the placenta, is measured by pregnancy tests?

Human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG)

At what rate are sperm produced in the testes per second?

1,500 sperm produced per second.

Which part of the female reproductive system is responsible for producing eggs?

Ovaries.

What hormone combination inhibits the hypothalamus from releasing more hormones during the menstrual cycle?

Estrogen and progesterone.

What are the two types of twins and how do they differ?

Identical twins (monozygotic) come from one sperm and one egg; fraternal twins (dizygotic) come from two separate eggs fertilized by different sperm.

What triggers menstruation in females?

Low levels of estrogen.

What is the role of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) in the ovarian cycle?

It promotes the growth of ovarian follicles.

What procedure is often used to manage a miscarriage?

Dilation and curettage (D&C).

What are the three major parts of the immune system's defense?

Physical barriers, innate immune system, adaptive immune system.

Can a false positive occur in a pregnancy test?

No, false positive does not exist.

What is the function of dendritic cells in the immune system?

They present antigens to activate other immune cells.

What is the main function of the cerebellum?

To coordinate voluntary movements and regulate motor responses.

Define homeostasis in the context of the autonomic nervous system.

It maintains the internal environment of the body.

What is an action potential in neurons?

An electrical impulse that propagates along the neuron, transmitting information.

What is the myelin sheath's function?

To insulate axons and speed up neural transmission.

What happens during fertilization regarding the sperm and egg?

Sperm enters the egg, and their nuclei merge to form a zygote.

What is the primary function of sensory receptors?

To detect stimuli and convert signals to electrical impulses.

What are the three divisions of the peripheral nervous system?

Sensory (afferent), motor (efferent), and autonomic divisions.

What type of immunity involves the activation of B cells and T cells?

Adaptive immunity.

What is the difference between active and passive immunity?

Active immunity involves the immune system producing memory cells, while passive immunity provides antibodies from another source.

What are neutrophils?

The most common type of white blood cell and first responders to infection.

How does synaptic transmission occur between neurons?

Neurons communicate using electrical impulses and neurotransmitters.

What is an antigen-presenting cell (APC)?

A cell that processes a pathogen and presents its antigens to T cells.

What is the role of the thalamus in the sensory information processing?

It relays sensory data to the cerebral cortex and filters unnecessary information.

What compound triggers the sensation of pain?

Pain receptors, sensitive to excess stimulus.

Define the term 'neurotransmitter'.

Chemicals used by neurons to communicate with each other.

What is the role of the hypothalamus in hormone regulation?

It releases hormones that control the anterior pituitary and regulates various bodily functions.

What does the term 'cleavage' refer to in embryonic development?

The subdivision of a zygote into smaller cells during early development.

What is the main distinction between the central and peripheral nervous systems?

The central nervous system includes the brain and spinal cord, while the peripheral nervous system includes all other neural elements.

What are the functions of the motor division of the peripheral nervous system?

To conduct impulses from the CNS to effectors such as muscles and glands.

What happens during synapse communication?

Neurons release neurotransmitters at the synapse to transmit signals to the next neuron.

What is the primary function of the myelin sheath?

To insulate axons and speed up the conduction of action potentials along the axon.

What are the primary hormones involved in the menstrual cycle?

Estrogen and progesterone.

What biological structure is primarily responsible for the production of antibodies?

B cells.

What is the term for the body's immediate, non-specific response to infection?

Innate immunity.

What does the term 'axon' refer to in a neuron?

A long extension of the neuron that carries outgoing information.

What happens to the body during sympathetic nervous system activation?

It mobilizes the body systems for 'fight or flight' responses.

What do sensory neurons do?

They transmit sensory information from receptors to the central nervous system.

What neurotransmitter is particularly important for mood regulation?

Serotonin.

What is the process by which the immune system remembers past infections?

Immunological memory.

What occurs in gestation when the egg is fertilized and begins to develop?

Development of the zygote into an embryo goes through stages like cleavage, gastrulation, and organogenesis.

What is a major reason for the occurrence of miscarriage during pregnancy?

Chromosomal abnormalities or issues with fetal development.

What does the 'germ layer' refer to in embryonic development?

The three distinct layers (ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm) that eventually differentiate into organs and systems.

What is the primary function of macrophages in the immune response?

To engulf and digest pathogens and act as antigen-presenting cells.

What happens to the body during parasympathetic nervous system activation?

It conserves energy and promotes 'rest and digest' functions.

What is the role of interleukins in the immune system?

To signal and regulate interactions between white blood cells.

How do olfactory receptors function in humans?

They detect odorants and send signals to the brain to perceive smells.

What is the immune response to a viral infection?

Activation of T cells to attack infected cells.

Where are antibodies produced in the body?

By plasma cells derived from B cells.

What is meant by 'negative feedback' in hormonal regulation?

A process where the output of a system dampens or reduces the effect of the input.

What is the effect of norepinephrine on the body?

It prepares the body for quick action by increasing heart rate and blood flow.

Define 'vasodilation'.

The widening of blood vessels to increase blood flow.

What is the function of the corpus callosum?

To facilitate communication between the left and right hemispheres of the brain.

What is an example of a physical barrier in the immune system?

The skin.

What role do lymph nodes play in the immune system?

They filter lymph and house immune cells that respond to pathogens.

What distinguishes T-cells from B-cells?

T-cells are primarily responsible for cell-mediated immunity, while B-cells mediate humoral immunity through antibody production.

What happens during the inflammatory response?

Increased blood flow, capillary permeability, and phagocytosis occur to combat infection.

What are the three types of neurons?

Sensory neurons, interneurons, and motor neurons.

What is the outcome of the binding of antibodies to antigens?

It inactivates the pathogen and enhances phagocytosis.

What is an autoimmune disorder?

A condition where the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's own healthy cells.

How does the body distinguish between self and non-self antigens?

Through immune receptors recognizing foreign antigens as different from the body’s own cells.

What is the physiological importance of serotonin in the brain?

It affects mood, emotion, and sensory perception.

What is the role of helper T cells in the immune response?

They activate other immune cells, including B cells and cytotoxic T cells.

What defines the cerebellum's function?

Coordination of voluntary movements and balance.

What does 'crossing over' refer to in reproduction?

The exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes during meiosis.

What is a common characteristic of both innate and adaptive immunity?

Both systems work together to protect the body from infection.

What are the major components of the central nervous system?

The brain and spinal cord.

What is the physiological significance of action potentials in neurons?

They are essential for rapid signal transmission in the nervous system.

What are macrophages also known as?

Antigen-presenting cells (APCs).

What types of cells attack and kill virus-infected body cells?

Cytotoxic T cells.

During what phase of the menstrual cycle is the endometrium built up?

During the follicular phase, influenced by estrogen.

What is the pathway of sound from the outer ear to the inner ear?

Outer ear → tympanic membrane → middle ear bones → oval window → cochlea.

What is an example of a chemical signal in the body?

Neurotransmitters released at synapses.

What is the role of cytokines in the immune system?

They are signaling proteins that help regulate the immune response.

What is the role of the basal membrane in the cochlea?

It vibrates in response to sound waves, affecting the hair cells for hearing.

How do vaccines work in the immune system?

They introduce antigenic material to stimulate a defensive response and generate memory cells.

What is a mutation in the context of genetics and reproduction?

A change in the DNA sequence that can lead to genetic diversity in offspring.

What is the primary mode of communication between neurons?

Through chemical neurotransmitters at synapses.

What is the function of the medulla oblongata?

It controls autonomic functions such as breathing and heart rate.

What ensures the correct species of sperm enters the egg?

The outer layers of the egg facilitate this process.

What are the two main types of adaptive immunity?

Cell-mediated and antibody-mediated immunity.

How does the body respond to an increase in temperature (fever)?

By activating the immune response to fight infection.

What are the principal functions of the stratum corneum in skin?

To provide a physical barrier against pathogens and regulate hydration.

What is acrosome reaction during fertilization?

The acrosome reaction refers to the release of enzymes from the acrosome in the sperm that allows it to penetrate the outer layers of the egg.

What are the stages of the embryonic development after fertilization?

The stages include cleavage, gastrulation, and organogenesis, leading to the formation of the embryo and its organ systems.

What hormone is linked to the thickening of the endometrium?

Estrogen is primarily responsible for thickening the endometrium in preparation for potential implantation.

What condition is characterized by the presence of multiple cysts in the ovaries?

Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS) is characterized by multiple cysts in the ovaries and irregular menstrual cycles.

What is the role of FSH in the female reproductive system?

FSH, or Follicle Stimulating Hormone, stimulates the growth and maturation of ovarian follicles.

How is sperm mobility affected by the female reproductive tract?

The female reproductive tract provides a suitable environment that aids sperm mobility through secretions and contractions.

What is the average lifespan of sperm in the female body?

Sperm can live for about 3 to 5 days within the female reproductive tract after ejaculation.

What is the significance of the luteal phase in the menstrual cycle?

The luteal phase is crucial for maintaining the endometrium under the influence of progesterone, which supports a potential pregnancy.

What is the role of the fallopian tubes in reproduction?

Fallopian tubes transport the egg from the ovary to the uterus and are the site where fertilization typically occurs.

Describe the process of fertilization.

Fertilization is when a sperm penetrates the egg to form a zygote, resulting in the combination of genetic material from both parents.

What are the primary functions of the placenta during pregnancy?

The placenta provides nutrients and oxygen to the fetus, removes waste products, and produces hormones to sustain the pregnancy.

What term describes the first signs of pregnancy visible through a test?

The presence of human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) in the urine or blood is the primary marker detected in pregnancy tests.

What factors contribute to the risk of ectopic pregnancies?

Factors include previous pelvic inflammatory disease, prior ectopic pregnancy, and certain reproductive surgeries or conditions.

What is the role of the myelin sheath in neuron function?

The myelin sheath insulates axons, increasing the speed of electrical impulses along neurons.

What are the effects of thyroid hormones on reproduction?

Thyroid hormones influence metabolism, which can affect reproductive hormone levels and fertility in both genders.

What are the typical symptoms of an impending miscarriage?

Symptoms may include cramping, bleeding, and the passage of tissue from the vagina, which could indicate a miscarriage.