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Most contemporary explanations of mental disorders fall into four distinct camps
(a)biological views, including genetics and other physiological explanations; (b)psychological issues, rooted in the invisible complexities of the human mind; (c)dysfunctional social relationships, including stressful interactions with family members and peers; and (d)sociocultural influences, including the effects of discrimination and stressors related to race, gender, and poverty.
models
an analogy used by scientists, usually to describe or explain a phenomenon or process they cannot directly observe
Scientists now recognize that one-dimensional perspectives are overly simplistic because they
(a)
set up a false “either–or” dichotomy between accepting one explanation or another (e.g., nature vs. nurture),
(b)
neglect the possibility that a variety of circumstances contribute to the development of mental disorders, and
(c)
fail to recognize the reciprocal interactions of the various contributing factors.
biopsychosocial model
the perspective suggesting that interactions between biological, psychological, and social factors cause mental disorders
sociocultural influences
factors such as gender, sexual orientation, spirituality, religion, socioeconomic status, race/ethnicity, and culture that can exert an effect on mental health
multipath model
a model that provides an organizational framework for understanding the numerous influences on the development of mental disorders, the complexity of their interacting components, and the need to view disorders from a holistic framework
The multipath model is _____and _____.
interactive and intergrative
implusivity
a tendency to act quickly without careful thought
heterogeneous
different or diverse
protective factors
conditions or attributes that lessen or eliminate the risk of a negative psychological or social outcome
the forebrain
responsible for higher-level mental processes
the midbrain
involved with basic functions such as hearing and vision, motor movement, alertness and sleep–wake cycles, and temperature regulation
the hindbrain
responsible for instinctive behavior related to self-preservation and survival as well as basic bodily functions involving physiological equilibrium such as heartbeat, respiration, and digestion.
the left hemisphere of the brain is associated with?
many language functions
the right hemisphere of the brain is associated with?
visual-spatial abilities and has stronger connections to structures associated with emotion
forebrain
contains brain structures associated with characteristics that make us human—thoughts, perceptions, intelligence, language, personality, imagination, planning, organization, and decision making
cerebrum
the largest part of the brain, consisting of the right and left hemisphere
cerebral cortex
the outermost layers of brain tissue; covers the cerebrum
neurons
a nerve cell that transmits messages throughout the body
prefrontal cortex
the outer layer of the prefrontal lobe responsible for inhibiting instinctive responses and performing complex cognitive behavior such as managing attention, behavior, and emotions
executive functioning
mental processes that involve the planning, organizing, and attention required to meet short-term and long-term goals
limbic system
a group of deep brain structures associated with emotions, decision making, and memory formation
amygdala
the brain structure involved with physiological reactivity and emotional memories
hippocampus
the part of the brain involved in forming, organizing, and storing memories
autonomic nervous system (ANS)
a system that coordinates basic physiological functions and regulates physical responses associated with emotional reactions
hypothalamus
the brain structure that regulates bodily drives, such as hunger, thirst, and sexual response, and body conditions, such as body temperature and circadian rhythms
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis
a system activated under conditions of stress or emotional arousal
pituitary glandthe gland that stimulates hormones associated with growth, sexual and reproductive development, metabolism, and stress responses
the gland that stimulates hormones associated with growth, sexual and reproductive development, metabolism, and stress responses
hormones
regulatory chemicals that influence various physiological activities, such as metabolism, digestion, growth, and mood
adrenal gland
a gland that releases sex hormones and other hormones, such as cortisol, in response to stress
gila
the cells that support and protect neurons
neural circuits
a signal-relaying network of interconnected neurons
dendrites
a short, rootlike structure on the neuron cell body that receives signals from other neurons
axon
an extension on the neuron cell body that sends signals to other neurons, muscles, and glands
axon terminals
bulblike swellings
Thus, dendrites bring information __ the body of the cell and axons carry information _____ from the cell.
to, away
myelination
the process by which myelin sheaths increase the efficiency of signal transmission between nerve cells
gray matter
brain tissue comprised of the cell bodies of neurons and glia
Effective communication between neurons relies on both ______ impulses and ______ signals
electrical, chemical
neurotransmitters
any of a group of chemicals that help transmit messages between neurons
synapse
a tiny gap that exists between the axon of the sending neuron and the dendrites of the receiving neuron
reuptake
the reabsorption of a neurotransmitter after an impulse has been transmitted across the synapse
enteric nervous system (ENS)
an independent neural system involved with digestion; capable of signaling the brain regarding stress and other emotions
homeostasis
the ability to maintain internal equilibrium by adjusting physiological processes
neuropeptides
small molecules that can directly and indirectly influence a variety of hormones and neurotransmitters
neuroplasticity
the ability of the brain to change its structure and function in response to experience
neurogenesis
the birth and growth of new neurons
neural stem cells
uncommitted cells that can be stimulated to form new neurons and glia
heredity
the genetic transmission of personal characteristics
traits
a distinguishing quality or characteristic of a person, including a tendency to feel, perceive, behave, or think in a relatively consistent manner
genes
segments of DNA coded with information needed for the biological inheritance of various traits
genome
the complete set of DNA in a cell; the human genome consists of approximately 30,000 genes located in the nucleus of every cell
genotype
a person’s genetic makeup
phenotype
observable physical and behavioral characteristics resulting from the interaction between the genotype and the environment
genetic mutations
an alteration in a gene that changes the instructions within the gene; some mutations result in biological dysfunction
alleles
the gene pair responsible for a specific trait
polymorphisms
a common DNA mutation or variation of a gene
Epigenetics
a field of biological research focused on understanding how environmental factors influence gene expression
gene expression
the process by which heritable information in a gene is translated into a specialized function within a cell; although the DNA within the cell does not change, epigenetic changes can be passed on to new cells during cell division and can be inherited
Epigenetic modifications appear to result from four primary categories of environmental influences:
nutrition, behavior, exposure to stress, and contact with toxins
Psychopharmacology
the study of the effects of psychotropic medications on thoughts, emotions, and behaviors
psychiatric medications correct physiological imbalances by __________ biochemical processes
normalizing
Classes of medication used to treat mental disorders include
(a)
antianxiety drugs (or minor tranquilizers),
(b)
antipsychotics (or major tranquilizers),
(c)
antidepressants (used for both depression and anxiety), and
(d)
mood stabilizers (sometimes called antimanic drugs).
used to calm people and to help them sleep
anti anxiety medication
treat the agitation, mental confusion, and loss of contact with reality associated with psychotic symptoms
antipsychotic medications
psychotic symptoms
the loss of contact with reality that may involve disorganized thinking, false beliefs, or seeing or hearing things that are not there
extrapyramidal symptoms
side effects of antipsychotic medications that can affect a person’s gait, movement, or posture
Some atypical antipsychotics reduce ________ transmission by loosely binding to dopamine receptors
dopamine
prescribed to help relieve symptoms of depression and anxiety. There are several well-known classes of antidepressants.
antidepressant medications
The primary difference between SSRIs and other antidepressants is that SSRIs specifically target the neurotransmitter serotonin whereas others target ________ neurotransmitters.
multiple
____________ are now being used for some psychological disorders
probiotics
Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
a procedure that can change brain chemistry and reverse symptoms associated with some mental disorders
psychosurgery
performing brain surgery in an attempt to correct a severe mental disorder
deep brain stimulation (DBS)
involves implanting electrodes that produce ongoing stimulation of specific areas of the brain.
vagus nerve stimulation
involves surgically implanting a pacemaker-like device under the skin on the chest; when activated, the device sends signals along a wire connected to the vagus nerve
vagus nerve
a nerve that creates a mind-body pathway from the brain through the digestive tract to the abdomen; regulates autonomic nervous system processes and body reactivity
repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS)
involves stimulation of the prefrontal cortex and regions of the brain involved with mood regulation; this is done by means of magnetic pulses emitted from an electromagnetic coil held against the forehead
Criticisms of Biological Models and Therapies?
Biological models are criticized for their failure to consider an individual’s unique life circumstances or psychological, social, or cultural influences on a person’s symptoms
drug-drug interactions
when the effect of a medication is changed, enhanced, or diminished when taken with another drug, including herbal substances
The psychological dimension focuses on:
emotions, learned behavior, and cognitions
Psychodynamic models
a model of psychopathology concerned with unconscious conflicts
The __ operates from the pleasure principle
id
pleasure principle
the impulsive, pleasure-seeking aspect of our being, from which the id operates
the ___ represents the realistic and rational part of the mind. It is influenced by the reality principle
ego
reality principle
an awareness of the demands of the environment and of the need to adjust behavior to meet these demands, from which the ego operates
Moralistic considerations are the domain of the ________
superego
psychosexual stages
in psychodynamic theory, the sequence of stages—oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital—through which human personality develops
the oral
first year of life
anal
around the second year of life
phallic
beginning around the third or fourth years of life
latency
approximately 6 to 12 years of age
genital
beginning in puberty
Fixation ______ emotional development at a particular psychosexual stage
halts
defense mechanisms
in psychoanalytic theory, an ego-protection strategy that shelters the individual from anxiety, operates unconsciously, and distorts reality
psychoanalysis
therapy aimed at helping clients uncover repressed material, achieve insight into inner motivations and desires, and resolve childhood conflicts that affect current relationships
free association
a psychoanalytic therapeutic technique in which clients are asked to say whatever comes to mind for the purpose of revealing their unconscious thoughts
Dream analysis
a psychoanalytic technique focused on interpreting the hidden meanings of dreams
resistance
during psychoanalysis, a process in which the client unconsciously attempts to impede the analysis by preventing the exposure of repressed material
transference
the process by which a client undergoing psychoanalysis reenacts early conflicts by applying to the analyst feelings and attitudes that the person has toward significant others
Contemporary psychodynamic therapists view experiences with early attachment figures as having powerful effects on current _____________ difficulties.
interpersonal
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