Neurons
cells in the nervous system that communicate with one another to perform information-processing tasks
Glia
Cells that support the functionality of the neurons by providing physical support, supplying nutrients and enhancing neuronal communication.
Cell Body (soma)
The part of a neuron that coordinates information-processing tasks and keeps the cell alive.
Dendrites
The part of the neuron that receives information from other neurons and relays it to the cell body.
Axon
The part of a neuron that transmits information to other neurons, muscles or glands.
Myelin Sheath
An insulating layer of fatty material made up of glial cells.
Synapse
The junction or region between the axon of one neuron and the dendrites or cell body of another.
Sensory Neurons
Neurons that receive information from the external world and and convey this information to the brain vis the spinal cord.
Motor Neurons
Neurons that carry signals from the spinal cprd to the muscles to produce movement.
Interneurons
Nerons that connect sensory neurons, motor neurons or other interneurons.
Resting Potential
The difference in electric charge between the inside and outside of a neurons cell membrane.
Action Potential
An electric signal that is conducted along the length of a neuron's axon to a synapse.
Refractory Period
The time following an action potential during which a new action potential cannot be initiated.
Terminal Buttons
Knoblike structures that branch out from an axon.
Cognitive Neuroscience
the scientific study of biological substrates underlying cognition with a specific focus on the neutral substrates of mental processes. It addresses the questions of how psychological/cognitive functions are produced by neural circuits in the brain.
Why Neuroscience matters?
Humans (and animals) are biological systems
The basic assumption of all modern neuroscience and psychology: Mental functions are the product of activity in the nervous system
What does the nervous system do?
Receives sensory information from the environment Integrates and processes information Regulates internal functions Produces motor actions
Levels of Observation:
Genes & DNA - make up Cells - basic units of structure/function Tissues - groups of cells of same kind Organs - structures composed of more than one tissue, work together to perform specific function Systems - groups of organs that work together to perform specific function Body
Structure of a living cell:
Nucleolus Nucleus Mitochondria Channels Other proteins Membrane
How many cells are there in the brain?
170 billion - 85 billion neurons, 85 billion glia cells
The structure of a neuron:
Nucleus Cell Body (Soma) Dendrites Axon Axon Hillock Myelin Sheath Axon terminal
Axon Hillock
Receives inputs from different cells and sends them along the axon.
Axon Terminal
forms synapses with dendrites of other neurons
Communication WITHIN a synapse is...
Electrical
Communication BETWEEN synapses are...
Chemical
Neurotransmitters
Chemicals that transmit information across the synapse to a receiving neuron's dendrites.
Receptors
Parts of the cell membrane that receive neurotransmitters and initiate a new electrical signal.
Spacial Summation
when the dendrites are stimulated from various neighbouring cells.
Temporal Summation
one cell repeatedly trying to stimulate a cell
Action Potential
Electricity: most single atoms have an electric charge, charged atoms are called ions An overall difference in charge between nearby areas creates an electric potential (aka voltage)
Chemistry: Diffusion - particles diffuse to equate concentrations across space
What is multiple sclerosis?
Autoimmune disease where one's own immune system damages the myelin sheath.
Type of neuron in the cerebellum?
Purkinje cell
Type of neuron in hippocampus?
Pyramidal cell
Type of neuron in Retina?
Bipolar cell
Motor neuron disease is...
a family of diseases in which motor neurons degenerate and die, leading to weakness, paralysis and eventually death
Synaptic Transmission
Communication BETWEEN neurons
EPSP
Excitatory Post-Synaptic Potential
IPSP
Inhibitory Post-Synaptic Potential
Excitatory Signal
tells neurotransmitter to fire
Inhibitory Signal
tells neurotransmitter NOT to fire
Glutamate
most common excitatory neurotransmitterimportant for learning and memory too much -> seizures/migraines OCD
GABA (Gamma-aminobutyric acid)
most common inhibitory neurotransmitter counteracts glutamate regulates and prevents over-excitation GABA deficiency -> seizures, tremors, insomnia/increased responsiveness to stress Increased risk of anxiety disorders and phobias
Acetylcholine (ACh)
Regulates motor control Excitatory in synapses between neurons and skeletal muscles Inhibitory in synapses between neurons an the heart important for attention, learning, memory, arousal... too much -> role in depression deficiency -> alzheimer's disease -> degeneration of cholinergic neurons
Dopamine
Important role in movement, motivation Tied to addiction too much -> inked to schizophrenia deficiency -> tremors, difficulty initiating and stopping movement -> parkinsons disease
Serotonin
regulates mood, appetite, sleep involved in arousal and aggression involved in cognitive functions -> learning and memory
Endorphins
chemicals that act within the pain pathways and emotion centres of the brain
Agonists
drug that mimics or increases the action of a neurotransmitter
Antagonist
Drug that blocks the effect of a neurotransmitter
Block reuptake agonists:
Prozac (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor) & Cocaine (blocks dopamine, norepinephrine & serotonin reuptake)
Increase production of neurotransmitter agonist:
L-dopa (precursor of dopamine, used for parkinson's)
Increase neurotransmitter release agonist:
Amphetamines (stimulate release of dopamine and norepinephrine)
Agonist - Blind and activate post-synaptic receptors:
Nicotine (activates Ach receptors) Cannabis (activates CB1 cannabinoid receptor - anandamide)
Antagonist - prevent release of neurotransmitter:
Botulinum Toxin (prevents ACh vesicles from fusing with membrane)
Antagonist - bind to post synaptic receptor and block it:
Haloperidol (prevents dopamine from activating receptors by blocking them; used to treat schizophrenia)
Nervous System
an interacting network of neurons that conveys electrochemical cells throughout the body -> the bodys command centre
Central Nervous System (CNS)
part of the nervous system that is composed of the brain and the spinal cord
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
part of nervous system that connects the central nervous system to the body's organs and muscles "outside the brain and spinal cord"
Somatic Nervous System (SNS)
nerves that convey information into and out of the central nervous system important for forming movements attached to bones/tendons that allow us to move
Automatic Nervous System (ANS)
set of nerves that carry involuntarily and automatic commands that control blood vessels, body organs and glands.
Sympathetic nervous system
A set of nerves that prepare the body for action in a threatening situation. increases arousal survival related action FOUR F'S
Parasympathetic Nervous system
a set of nerves that help the body return to a normal resting state reduces arousal
Sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems act in a _________ manner...
CO-ORDINATED
SYMP vs PARASYMP
eyes
bronchi
heartbeat
digestive activity
glucose release/gallbladder
adrenaline??
bladder
sex organs?
Central Nervous System Terminology: 4 Legged Mammal
Front
Back
Above
Below
Front - rostral/anterior Back - caudal/posterior Above - dorsal Below - Ventral
Central Nervous System Terminology: 2 Legged Mammal (Human)
Front
Back
Front
Back
Front - rostral/anterior Back - caudal/posterior Front - Ventral Back - Dorsal
Central Nervous System Terminology: In the Brain
Above
Below
Above - Dorsal Below - Ventral
Spinal Column
made up of tiny bones
vertebrae protect the spinal cord
Spinal Reflexes
Simple pathways in the nervous system that rapidly generate muscle contractions
Hindbrain
An area of the brain that coordinates information coming into and out of the spinal cord.
Dorsal horn location and function...
back of spinal cord receives sensory information
Ventral horn location and function...
Front of spinal cord sends signals to thee body to initiate motor movement
Gray matter (cortex)...
where the cell bodies are in the brain (dendrites)
White matter...
where myelinated axons are in the brain
Left/Right function in the brain...
Left control right side of body Right controls left side of body
Left/Right function in the spinal cord...
Left controls left side of body Right controls right side of body
Dorsal/Ventral Horn effect whether one has difficulty with....
Paralysis (ventral) Sensation (dorsal)
Folds within the brain allow for more...
cortex
Name the view/slice of the brain...
Horizontal/Axial/Transverse
Name the view/slice of the brain...
Sagittal
Name the view/slice of the brain...
Coronal
The 3 major divisions of the brain are....
Forebrain Midbrain Hindbrain
Hindbrain
an area of the brain that coordinates information coming into and out of the spinal cord
The hindbrain is phylogenetically ancient means that....
it was the first developed part of the brain (in terms of evolution)
The 4 parts to the hindbrain are...
Pons Medulla Reticular Formation Cerbellum
Medulla
an extension of the spinal cord into the skull that coordinates heart rate, circulation and respiration vital to survive -> damage can cause heart and lungs to stop
The term "brain stem dead" means....
There has been damage to the medulla
Reticular Formation
regulates sleep/wake cycle & arousal levels
cerebellum
controls fine motor skills
Pons
relays information from the cerebellum to the rest of the brain
Midbrain
Important to coordinate the basic functions related to perception and action
Tectum
spatial orienting to an environment
In the tectum, the SUPERIOR colliculi is responsible for...
visual orientation
In the tectum, the INFERIOR colliculi is responsible for...
auditory orientation
Tegmentum
movement, arousal and pleasure seeking
Substantia Nigra
part of tegmentum high level of dopamine can give it a dark colour plae colour -> parkinsons
Forebrain
highest level of the brain - both literally and figuratively split into the cerebral cortex and the subcortial structures
Cerebral cortex
outermost layer of the brain - visible to the naked eye and split into two hemispheres
Subcortial structures
areas of the forebrain housed under the cerebral cortex near the very centre of the brain
Basal Ganglia
plans initiation of intentional movements
Thalamus
relays and filters information from the senses to the cortex (except smell)